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Berengarian
The Berengarians were a Proto-Protestant religious sect who adhered to the views of Berengar of Tours, Archdeacon of Angers, and opposed several key Roman Catholic doctrines in the mid-eleventh century. They opposed the emerging doctrine of Transubstantiation, the practice of infant baptism, and private sacramental confession. Additionally, they upheld the belief that Scripture, rather than the Church, held supreme authority for Christians. The Berengarian sect, considered heretical by the Roman Catholic Church, is said to have numbered 800,000 according to the historian Belamine. Classification as heresy The Roman Catholic Church held considerable power in Western Europe during the High and Late Middle Ages. Those clergy and theologians whom it judged guilty of heresy could be excommunicated and exiled or sentenced to death unless they formally recanted their errors. A text by Frankish monk Ratramnus of Corbie misattributed to John Scotus Eriugena, a philosopher-theologian and int ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
John Scotus Eriugena
John Scotus Eriugena, also known as Johannes Scotus Erigena, John the Scot or John the Irish-born ( – c. 877), was an Irish Neoplatonist philosopher, theologian and poet of the Early Middle Ages. Bertrand Russell dubbed him "the most astonishing person of the ninth century". Russell, Bertrand. ''The History Of Western Philosophy'' The ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' states that he "is the most significant Irish intellectual of the early monastic period. He is generally recognized to be both the outstanding philosopher (in terms of originality) of the Carolingian era and of the whole period of Latin philosophy stretching from Boethius to Anselm". He wrote a number of works, but is best known today for having written ''De Divisione Naturae'' ("The Division of Nature"), or ''Periphyseon'', which has been called the "final achievement" of ancient philosophy, a work which "synthesizes the philosophical accomplishments of fifteen centuries". The principal concern ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Berengar Of Tours
Berengar of Tours (died 6 January 1088), in Latin Berengarius Turonensis, was an 11th-century French Christian theologian and archdeacon of Angers, a scholar whose leadership of the cathedral school at Chartres set an example of intellectual inquiry through the revived tools of dialectic that was soon followed at cathedral schools of Laon and Paris. Berengar of Tours was distinguished from mainline Catholic theology by two views: his assertion of the supremacy of Scripture and his denial of transubstantiation. Biography Berengar of Tours was born perhaps at Tours, probably in the early years of the 11th century. His education began in the school of Bishop Fulbert of Chartres, who represented the traditional theology of the early Middle Ages, but did not succeed in imparting it to his pupil. Berengar was less attracted by pure theology than by secular learning, and brought away a knowledge of Latin literature, dialectic, and general knowledge and freedom of thought. Later he pa ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Gundolfo
Gundolfo or Gundulf is purported to be a teacher of Proto-Protestant Christian doctrines in the 11th century. Of Italian origin, he was said to be active in the bishopric of Cambrai-Arras in northern France (south of Lille) around 1046 during the episcopate of Bishop Gerard of Florennes. Gundolfo was heavily influenced by the preaching and teaching of Berengar of Tours and his teaching about the supremacy of scripture. Gundolfo could himself be considered an early Berengarian. Gundulfo rejected the sacraments and authority of the Catholic Church and claimed salvation by a righteousness based on reading of the scriptures rather than on Catholic Church dogma. His teachings emphasized that salvation was achieved through a virtuous life of abandoning the world, restraining the appetites of the flesh, earning food by the labor of hands, doing no injury to anyone, and extending charity to everyone of their own faith. Following a lengthy sermon by Gerard, followers of Gundulfo reca ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Impanation
Impanation (Latin: ''impanatio'', "embodied in bread") is a high medieval theory of the real presence of the body of Jesus Christ in the consecrated bread of the Eucharist that does not imply a change in the substance of either the bread or the body. This doctrine, apparently patterned after Christ's Incarnation (God is made flesh in the Person of Jesus Christ), is the assertion that "God is made bread" in the Eucharist. Christ's divine attributes are shared by the eucharistic bread via his body. This view is similar but not identical to the theory of consubstantiation associated with Lollardy. It is considered a heresy by the Roman Catholic Church and is also rejected by classical Lutheranism Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestantism that emerged under the work of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German friar and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practices of the Catholic Church launched .... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Proto-Protestant
Proto-Protestantism, also called pre-Protestantism, refers to individuals and movements that propagated various ideas later associated with Protestantism before 1517, which historians usually regard as the starting year for the Reformation era. The relationship between medieval sects and Protestantism is an issue that has been debated by historians. Successionism is the further idea that these proto-Protestants are evidence of a continuous hidden church of true believers, despite their manifest differences in belief. Overview Before Martin Luther and John Calvin, some leaders tried to reform Christianity. The main forerunners of the Protestant Reformation were Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe and Jan Hus. Martin Luther himself saw it important to have forerunners of his views, and thus he praised people like Girolamo Savonarola, Lorenzo Valla, Wessel Gansfort and other groups as prefiguring some of his views. Claimed to have prefigured Protestantism Pre-reformation movement ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
John Calvin
John Calvin (; ; ; 10 July 150927 May 1564) was a French Christian theology, theologian, pastor and Protestant Reformers, reformer in Geneva during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism, including its doctrines of predestination and of God's Monergism, absolute sovereignty in the Christian soteriology, salvation of the human soul from death and Damnation, eternal damnation. Calvinist doctrines were Augustinian soteriology, influenced by and elaborated upon the Augustinian and other Christian traditions. Various Reformed Christianity, Reformed Church like Continental Reformed, Congregationalism, Presbyterianism, Waldensians, Reformed Baptists, Baptist Reformed, Calvinistic Methodism, Calvinist Methodism, and Reformed Anglican Churches, which look to Calvin as the chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world. Calvin was a tireless polemicist and Christian apolog ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Protestant Reformation
The Reformation, also known as the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation, was a time of major theological movement in Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the papacy and the authority of the Catholic Church. Towards the end of the Renaissance, the Reformation marked the beginning of Protestantism. It is considered one of the events that signified the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the early modern period in Europe. The Reformation is usually dated from Martin Luther's publication of the '' Ninety-five Theses'' in 1517, which gave birth to Lutheranism. Prior to Martin Luther and other Protestant Reformers, there were earlier reform movements within Western Christianity. The end of the Reformation era is disputed among modern scholars. In general, the Reformers argued that justification was based on faith in Jesus alone and not both faith and good works, as in the Catholic view. In the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Tract (literature)
A tract is a literary work and, in current usage, usually religious in nature. The notion of what constitutes a tract has changed over time. By the early part of the 21st century, a tract referred to a brief pamphlet used for religious and political purposes. Tracts are often either left for someone to find or handed out. However, there have been times in history when the term implied tome-like works. A ''tractate'', a derivative of a tract, is equivalent in Hebrew literature to a ''chapter'' of the Christian Bible. History The distribution of tracts pre-dates the development of the printing press, with the term being applied by scholars to religious and political works at least as early as the 7th century. They were used to disseminate the teachings of John Wycliffe in the 14th century. As a political tool, they proliferated throughout Europe during the 17th century. They have been printed as persuasive religious material since the invention of Gutenberg's printing press, be ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Geoffrey II, Count Of Anjou
Geoffrey II, called Martel (1006 – 14 November 1060), son of Fulk the Black, was a French knight and Count of Anjou from 1040 to 1060 and Count of Vendôme from 1032 to 1056. He fought battles against William VII, Duke of Aquitaine, Theobald III, Count of Blois, and William, Duke of Normandy. During his twenty-year reign, Geoffrey II faced down the ambitions of the Bishop of Le Mans, Gervais de Château-du-Loir and was able to maintain his authority over the County of Maine. Martel founded the Abbey aux Dames in Saintonge and also, in collaboration with his wife Agnes, founded the Abbaye de la Trinité (Abbey of the Trinity) at Vendôme. He was described in the '' Gesta Normannorum Ducum'' as "a treacherous man in every respect, frequently inflicted assaults and intolerable pressure on his neighbors."Van Houts, p. 123. Combat "In alliance with King Henry I of France, Count Geoffrey laid siege to Tours in the winter of 1042–3. After the battle of Nouy on 21 Augus ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Eusebius Of Angers
Eusebius (Bruno) of Angers (died September 1, 1081) was bishop of Angers, France. He first appears in the historical record as bishop of Angers at the synod of Rheims in 1049, and for a long time had been an adherent of Berengar of Tours, Berengar's doctrine of the Lord's Supper. As such he was highly regarded by Berengar himself and by his opponents Theodwin of Liège, Durand of Troarne, and Humbert of Mourmoutiers. But when he recognized the strength of the opposition, he favored a compromise; at any rate he advised Berengar is 1054 to swear to the formula presented to him. Nevertheless, Berengar considered him his friend many years later and requested him to silence a certain Galfrid Martini or to arrange a disputation. In his reply Eusebius not only regretted the whole controversy, but also stated that he would abide by the words of the Bible, according to which the bread and wine after the consecration become the body and blood of the Lord (see transubstantiation); if one asks ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Transubstantiation
Transubstantiation (; Greek language, Greek: μετουσίωσις ''metousiosis'') is, according to the teaching of the Catholic Church, "the change of the whole substance of sacramental bread, bread into the substance of the Body of Christ and of the whole substance of wine into the substance of the Blood of Christ". This change is brought about in the Eucharist, eucharistic prayer through the efficacy of the word of Christ and by the action of the Holy Spirit in Christianity, Holy Spirit. However, "the outward characteristics of bread and wine, that is the 'eucharistic species', remain unaltered". In this teaching, the notions of "substance" and "transubstantiation" are not linked with any particular theory of metaphysics. The Catholic Church teaches that, in the Eucharistic offering, bread and wine are changed into the body and blood of Christ. The affirmation of this doctrine on the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist was expressed, using the word "transubstantiate", by ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Eucharist
The Eucharist ( ; from , ), also called Holy Communion, the Blessed Sacrament or the Lord's Supper, is a Christianity, Christian Rite (Christianity), rite, considered a sacrament in most churches and an Ordinance (Christianity), ordinance in others. Christians believe that the rite was instituted by Jesus at the Last Supper, the night before Crucifixion of Jesus, his crucifixion, giving his Disciple (Christianity), disciples bread and wine. Passages in the New Testament state that he commanded them to "do this in memory of me" while referring to the bread as "my body" and the cup of wine as "the blood of my covenant, which is poured out for many". According to the synoptic Gospels, this was at a Passover meal. The elements of the Eucharist, sacramental bread, either Leavening agent, leavened or Unleavened bread, unleavened, and sacramental wine (non-alcoholic grape juice in some Protestantism, Protestant traditions, such as Methodism), are consecrated on an altar or a communio ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
