Rembrandt catalog raisonné, 1908
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (, ; 15 July 1606 – 4 October 1669), usually simply known as Rembrandt, was a Dutch Golden Age painter,
printmaker Printmaking is the process of creating work of art, artworks by printing, normally on paper, but also on fabric, wood, metal, and other surfaces. "Traditional printmaking" normally covers only the process of creating prints using a hand proce ...
and
draughtsman A draughtsman (British spelling) or draftsman (American spelling) may refer to: * An architectural drafter, who produced architectural drawings until the late 20th century * An artist who produces drawings that rival or surpass their other types ...
. An innovative and prolific master in three media, he is generally considered one of the greatest
visual artists The visual arts are art forms such as painting, drawing, printmaking, sculpture, ceramics, photography, video, filmmaking, design, crafts and architecture. Many artistic disciplines such as performing arts, conceptual art, and textile arts al ...
in the history of art and the most important in Dutch art history.Gombrich, p. 420. Unlike most
Dutch masters Dutch Golden Age painting is the painting of the Dutch Golden Age, a period in Dutch history roughly spanning the 17th century, during and after the later part of the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) for Dutch independence. The new Dutch Republ ...
of the 17th century, Rembrandt's works depict a wide range of style and subject matter, from portraits and self-portraits to landscapes, genre scenes, allegorical and historical scenes, biblical and mythological themes and animal studies. His contributions to art came in a period of great wealth and cultural achievement that historians call the
Dutch Golden Age The Dutch Golden Age ( nl, Gouden Eeuw ) was a period in the history of the Netherlands, roughly spanning the era from 1588 (the birth of the Dutch Republic) to 1672 (the Rampjaar, "Disaster Year"), in which Dutch trade, science, and Dutch art, ...
, when Dutch art (especially
Dutch painting Dutch commonly refers to: * Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands * Dutch people () * Dutch language () Dutch may also refer to: Places * Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States * Pennsylvania Dutch Country People E ...
), whilst antithetical to the Baroque style that dominated Europe, was prolific and innovative. This era gave rise to important new genres. Like many artists of the Dutch Golden Age, such as Jan Vermeer, Rembrandt was an avid art collector and dealer. Rembrandt never went abroad, but was considerably influenced by the work of the
Italian masters Since ancient times, Greeks, Etruscans and Celts have inhabited the south, centre and north of the Italian peninsula respectively. The very numerous Rock Drawings in Valcamonica, rock drawings in Valcamonica are as old as 8,000 BC, and there ar ...
and Netherlandish artists who had studied in Italy, like Pieter Lastman, the
Utrecht Caravaggists Utrecht Caravaggism ( nl, Utrechtse caravaggisten) refers to the work of a group of artists who were from, or had studied in, the Dutch city of Utrecht, and during their stay in Rome during the early seventeenth century had become distinctly infl ...
,
Flemish Baroque Flemish Baroque painting refers to the art produced in the Southern Netherlands during Spanish control in the 16th and 17th centuries. The period roughly begins when the Dutch Republic was split from the Habsburg Spain regions to the south with ...
, and Peter Paul Rubens. After he achieved youthful success as a portrait painter, Rembrandt's later years were marked by personal tragedy and financial hardships. Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, his reputation as an artist remained high, and for twenty years he taught many important Dutch painters. Rembrandt's portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible are regarded as his greatest creative triumphs. His self-portraits form an intimate autobiography. Rembrandt's foremost contribution in the history of printmaking was his transformation of the etching process from a relatively new reproductive technique into an art form. His reputation as the greatest
etcher Etching is traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio (incised) in the metal. In modern manufacturing, other chemicals may be used on other types ...
in the history of the medium was established in his lifetime. Few of his paintings left the Dutch Republic while he lived, but his
prints In molecular biology, the PRINTS database is a collection of so-called "fingerprints": it provides both a detailed annotation resource for protein families, and a diagnostic tool for newly determined sequences. A fingerprint is a group of conserve ...
were circulated throughout Europe, and his wider reputation was initially based on them alone. In his works, he exhibited knowledge of classical
iconography Iconography, as a branch of art history, studies the identification, description and interpretation of the content of images: the subjects depicted, the particular compositions and details used to do so, and other elements that are distinct fro ...
. A depiction of a biblical scene was informed by Rembrandt's knowledge of the specific text, his assimilation of classical composition, and his observations of Amsterdam's Jewish population. Because of his empathy for the human condition, he has been called "one of the great prophets of civilization". The French sculptor
Auguste Rodin François Auguste René Rodin (12 November 184017 November 1917) was a French sculptor, generally considered the founder of modern sculpture. He was schooled traditionally and took a craftsman-like approach to his work. Rodin possessed a uniqu ...
said, "Compare me with Rembrandt! What sacrilege! With Rembrandt, the colossus of Art! We should prostrate ourselves before Rembrandt and never compare anyone with him!" Rodin, Auguste: ''Art: Conversations with Paul Gsell''. Translated from the French by Jacques de Caso and Patricia B. Sanders. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984) , p. 85. Originally published as ''Auguste Rodin, L'Art: Entretiens réunis par Paul Gsell'' (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1911). Auguste Rodin: "Me comparer à Rembrandt, quel sacrilège! À Rembrandt, le colosse de l'Art! Y pensez-vous, mon ami! Rembrandt, prosternons-nous et ne mettons jamais personne à côté de lui!” (original in French)


Life

Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 July, 1606 in Leiden, in the Dutch Republic, now the Netherlands. He was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuijtbrouck. His family was quite well-to-do; his father was a miller and his mother was a baker's daughter. Religion is a central theme in Rembrandt's works and the religiously fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of interest. His mother was Catholic, and his father belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church. While his work reveals deep Christian faith, there is no evidence that Rembrandt formally belonged to any church. Some scholars, such as
Hendrik Willem van Loon Hendrik Willem van Loon (January 14, 1882 – March 11, 1944) was a Dutch-American historian, journalist, and children's book author. Life He was born in Rotterdam, Netherlands, the son of Hendrik Willem van Loon and Elisabeth Johanna Hanken. ...
, suggest he may have been Mennonite. Five of his children were christened in Dutch Reformed churches in Amsterdam: four in the Oude Kerk (Old Church) and one, Titus, in the Zuiderkerk (Southern Church). As a boy, he attended Latin school. At the age of 13, he was enrolled at the University of Leiden, although according to a contemporary he had a greater inclination towards painting; he was soon apprenticed to a Leiden history painter,
Jacob van Swanenburg Jacob Isaacszoon van Swanenburg (; 1571, Leiden – 1638, Utrecht) was a Dutch painter, draftsman and art dealer. He was known for his city views, history paintings, Christian religious scenes and portraits. He spent a substantial part of h ...
, with whom he spent three years.Rembrandt biography
in ''De groote schouburgh der Nederlantsche konstschilders en schilderessen'' (1718) by
Arnold Houbraken Arnold Houbraken (28 March 1660 – 14 October 1719) was a Dutch painter and writer from Dordrecht, now remembered mainly as a biographer of Dutch Golden Age painters. Life Houbraken was sent first to learn ''threadtwisting'' (Twyndraat) fr ...
, courtesy of the Digital library for Dutch literature
After a brief but important apprenticeship of six months with the painter Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam, Rembrandt stayed a few months with
Jacob Pynas Jacob (; ; ar, يَعْقُوب, Yaʿqūb; gr, Ἰακώβ, Iakṓb), later given the name Israel, is regarded as a patriarch of the Israelites and is an important figure in Abrahamic religions, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Ja ...
and then started his own workshop, though Simon van Leeuwen claimed that
Joris van Schooten Joris van Schooten (1587–1651) was a Dutch Golden Age painter and the uncle of the Leiden mathematician Frans van Schooten. Biography According to Houbraken he was born in Leiden with a talent for drawing, and his teachers were upset that he ...
taught Rembrandt in Leiden. Unlike many of his contemporaries who traveled to Italy as part of their artistic training, Rembrandt never left the Dutch Republic during his lifetime. He opened a studio in Leiden in 1624 or 1625, which he shared with friend and colleague Jan Lievens. In 1627, Rembrandt began to accept students, which included Gerrit Dou in 1628. In 1629, Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman Constantijn Huygens (father of the Dutch mathematician and physicist
Christiaan Huygens Christiaan Huygens, Lord of Zeelhem, ( , , ; also spelled Huyghens; la, Hugenius; 14 April 1629 – 8 July 1695) was a Dutch mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor, who is regarded as one of the greatest scientists of ...
), who procured for Rembrandt important commissions from the court of The Hague. As a result of this connection, Prince
Frederik Hendrik Frederick Henry ( nl, Frederik Hendrik; 29 January 1584 – 14 March 1647) was the sovereign prince of Orange and stadtholder of County of Holland, Holland, County of Zeeland, Zeeland, Lordship of Utrecht, Utrecht, Guelders, Lordship of Overijss ...
continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt until 1646. At the end of 1631, Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam, a city rapidly expanding as the new business capital of the Netherlands. He began to practice as a professional portraitist for the first time, with great success. He initially stayed with an art dealer, Hendrick van Uylenburgh, and in 1634, married Hendrick's cousin, Saskia van Uylenburgh. Saskia came from a good family: her father had been a lawyer and the ''burgemeester'' (mayor) of Leeuwarden. When Saskia, as the youngest daughter, became an orphan, she lived with an older sister in
Het Bildt Het or HET may refer to: Science and technology * Hall-effect thruster, a type of ion thruster used for spacecraft propulsion * Heavy Equipment Transporter, a vehicle in the US Army's Heavy Equipment Transport System * Hobby–Eberly Telescope, a ...
. Rembrandt and Saskia were married in the local church of St. Annaparochie without the presence of Rembrandt's relatives. In the same year, Rembrandt became a
burgess __NOTOC__ Burgess may refer to: People and fictional characters * Burgess (surname), a list of people and fictional characters * Burgess (given name), a list of people Places * Burgess, Michigan, an unincorporated community * Burgess, Missouri, U ...
of Amsterdam and a member of the local guild of painters. He also acquired a number of students, among them Ferdinand Bol and
Govert Flinck Govert (or Govaert) Teuniszoon Flinck (25 January 16152 February 1660) was a Dutch painter of the Dutch Golden Age. Life Born at Kleve, capital of the Duchy of Cleves, which was occupied at the time by the United Provinces, he was apprenticed by ...
.Bull, et al., p. 28 In 1635, Rembrandt and Saskia moved into their own house, renting in fashionable Nieuwe Doelenstraat with a view on the Amstel river. In 1639 they moved to a prominent newly built house (now the
Rembrandt House Museum The Rembrandt House Museum ( nl, Museum Het Rembrandthuis) is a museum located in a former house in the Jodenbreestraat, in the center of Amsterdam. Between 1639 and 1658, the house was occupied by the well-known Dutch painter Rembrandt van Rijn ...
) in the upscale 'Breestraat' (eng.: 'Broadway'), today known as
Jodenbreestraat The Jodenbreestraat ("Jewish Broad Street") is a street in the centre of Amsterdam, which connects the Sint Antoniesluis sluice gates to the Mr. Visserplein traffic circle. North of the sluice gates, the street continues on to Nieuwmarkt square ...
in what was becoming the Jewish quarter; then a young up-and-coming neighborhood. The mortgage to finance the 13,000 guilder purchase would be a primary cause for later financial difficulties. Rembrandt should easily have been able to pay the house off with his large income, but it appears his spending always kept pace with his income, and he may have made some unsuccessful investments. It was there that Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model for his
Old Testament The Old Testament (often abbreviated OT) is the first division of the Christian biblical canon, which is based primarily upon the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, a collection of ancient religious Hebrew writings by the Israelites. The ...
scenes. Although they were by now affluent, the couple suffered several personal setbacks; their son Rumbartus died two months after his birth in 1635 and their daughter Cornelia died at just three weeks of age in 1638. In 1640, they had a second daughter, also named Cornelia, who died after living barely over a month. Only their fourth child, Titus, who was born in 1641, survived into adulthood. Saskia died in 1642 soon after Titus's birth, probably from tuberculosis. Rembrandt's drawings of her on her sick and death bed are among his most moving works.Slive, p. 71 During Saskia's illness, Geertje Dircx was hired as Titus' caretaker and nurse and also became Rembrandt's lover. She would later charge Rembrandt with breach of promise (a euphemism for seduction under
reached ''Reached'' is a 2012 young adult dystopian novel by Allyson Braithwaite Condie and is the final novel in the ''Matched Trilogy,'' preceded by '' Matched'' and '' Crossed''. The novel was published on November 13, 2012, by Dutton Juvenile and wa ...
promise to marry) and was awarded alimony of 200 guilders a year. Rembrandt worked to have her committed to an asylum or poorhouse (called a "bridewell") at
Gouda Gouda may refer to: * Gouda, South Holland, a city in the Netherlands ** Gouda (pottery), style of pottery manufactured in Gouda ** Gouda cheese, type of cheese originally made in and around Gouda ** Gouda railway station * Gouda, Western Cape, a s ...
, after learning she had pawned jewelry he had given her that once belonged to Saskia. In the late 1640s Rembrandt began a relationship with the much younger Hendrickje Stoffels, who had initially been his maid. In 1654 they had a daughter, Cornelia, bringing Hendrickje a summons from the
Reformed Church Calvinism (also called the Reformed Tradition, Reformed Protestantism, Reformed Christianity, or simply Reformed) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice set down by John Cal ...
to answer the charge "that she had committed the acts of a whore with Rembrandt the painter". She admitted this and was banned from receiving communion. Rembrandt was not summoned to appear for the Church council because he was not a member of the Reformed Church. The two were considered legally wed under common law, but Rembrandt had not married Hendrickje. Had he remarried he would have lost access to a trust set up for Titus in Saskia's will. Rembrandt lived beyond his means, buying art (including bidding up his own work), prints (often used in his paintings) and rarities, which probably caused a court arrangement ( cessio bonorum) to avoid his bankruptcy in 1656, by selling most of his paintings and large collection of antiquities, but was allowed to keep his tools. The sale list survives and gives a good insight into Rembrandt's collections, which, apart from Old Master paintings and drawings, included busts of the Roman emperors, suits of Japanese armor among many objects from Asia, and collections of natural history and minerals. But the prices realized in the sales in 1657 and 1658 were disappointing. Rembrandt was forced to sell his house and his printing-press and move to more modest accommodation on the Rozengracht in 1660. The authorities and his creditors were generally accommodating to him, except for the Amsterdam painters' guild, which introduced a new rule that no one in Rembrandt's circumstances could trade as a painter. To get around this, Hendrickje and Titus set up a dummy corporation as art dealers in 1660, with Rembrandt as an employee. In 1661 Rembrandt (or rather the new business) was contracted to complete work for the newly built city hall, but only after Govert Flinck, the artist previously commissioned, died without beginning to paint. The resulting work, ''
The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis ''The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis'' ( nl, De samenzwering van de Bataven onder Claudius Civilis; sv, Batavernas trohetsed till Claudius Civilis) is an oil painting by the Dutch painter Rembrandt, c. 1661–62, which was originally the larges ...
'', was rejected and returned to the painter; the surviving fragment is only a fraction of the whole work. It was around this time that Rembrandt took on his last apprentice, Aert de Gelder. In 1662 he was still fulfilling major commissions for portraits and other works. In 1662 one of Rembrandt's creditors went to the High Court (
Hof van Holland The Hof van Holland, Zeeland en West-Friesland (; usually shortened to Hof van Holland in the literature, and translated in English literature as "(High) Court of Holland") was the High Court of the provinces of Holland, West Friesland and Zeeland ...
) to contest that Titus had to be paid first. Isaac van Hertsbeeck lost twice and had to pay the money he had already received to Titus, which he did in 1668. When Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany came to Amsterdam in 1667, he visited Rembrandt at his house. Rembrandt outlived both Hendrickje, who died in 1663, and Titus, who died in 1668, leaving a baby daughter. He died within a year of his son, on 4 October 1669 in Amsterdam, and was buried as a supposedly rich man as the heirs paid in burial taxes a substantial amount of money, ''f'' 15. but in a paupers grave in the Westerkerk. It was in a numbered 'kerkgraf' (grave owned by the church) somewhere under a tombstone in the church. After twenty years, his remains were taken away and destroyed, as was customary.


Works

In a letter to Huygens, Rembrandt offered the only surviving explanation of what he sought to achieve through his art: ''the greatest and most natural movement'', translated from ''de meeste en de natuurlijkste beweegelijkheid''. The word "beweegelijkheid" is also argued to mean "emotion" or "motive". Whether this refers to objectives, material or otherwise, is open to interpretation; either way, critics have drawn particular attention to the way Rembrandt seamlessly melded the earthly and spiritual. Earlier-20th-century connoisseurs claimed Rembrandt had produced well over 600 paintings, nearly 400 etchings and 2,000 drawings. More recent scholarship, from the 1960s to the present day (led by the Rembrandt Research Project), often controversially, has winnowed his oeuvre to nearer 300 paintings. His
prints In molecular biology, the PRINTS database is a collection of so-called "fingerprints": it provides both a detailed annotation resource for protein families, and a diagnostic tool for newly determined sequences. A fingerprint is a group of conserve ...
, traditionally all called etchings, although many are produced in whole or part by engraving and sometimes drypoint, have a much more stable total of slightly under 300. It is likely Rembrandt made many more drawings in his lifetime than 2,000, but those extant are more rare than presumed. Two experts claim that the number of drawings whose autograph status can be regarded as effectively "certain" is no higher than about 75, although this is disputed. The list was to be unveiled at a scholarly meeting in February 2010. At one time about ninety paintings were counted as Rembrandt self-portraits, but it is now known that he had his students copy his own self-portraits as part of their training. Modern scholarship has reduced the autograph count to over forty paintings, as well as a few drawings and thirty-one etchings, which include many of the most remarkable images of the group. Some show him posing in quasi-historical fancy dress, or pulling faces at himself. His oil paintings trace the progress from an uncertain young man, through the dapper and very successful portrait-painter of the 1630s, to the troubled but massively powerful portraits of his old age. Together they give a remarkably clear picture of the man, his appearance and his psychological make-up, as revealed by his richly weathered face. In his portraits and self-portraits, he angles the sitter's face in such a way that the ridge of the nose nearly always forms the line of demarcation between brightly illuminated and shadowy areas. A Rembrandt face is a face partially eclipsed; and the nose, bright and obvious, thrusting into the riddle of halftones, serves to focus the viewer's attention upon, and to dramatize, the division between a flood of light—an overwhelming clarity—and a brooding duskiness. In a number of biblical works, including ''The Raising of the Cross'', ''Joseph Telling His Dreams'' and ''
The Stoning of Saint Stephen ''The Stoning of Saint Stephen'' is the first signed painting by Dutch artist Rembrandt, made in 1625 at the age of 19. one of his earlier works is an oil painting on a wood panel and currently exhibited at the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon. Th ...
'', Rembrandt painted himself as a character in the crowd. Durham suggests that this was because the Bible was for Rembrandt "a kind of diary, an account of moments in his own life". Among the more prominent characteristics of Rembrandt's work are his use of chiaroscuro, the theatrical employment of light and shadow derived from
Caravaggio Michelangelo Merisi (Michele Angelo Merigi or Amerighi) da Caravaggio, known as simply Caravaggio (, , ; 29 September 1571 – 18 July 1610), was an Italian painter active in Rome for most of his artistic life. During the final four years of hi ...
, or, more likely, from the Dutch
Caravaggisti The Caravaggisti (or the "Caravagesques") were stylistic followers of the late 16th-century Italian Baroque painter Caravaggio. His influence on the new Baroque style that eventually emerged from Mannerism was profound. Caravaggio never establish ...
, but adapted for very personal means. Also notable are his dramatic and lively presentation of subjects, devoid of the rigid formality that his contemporaries often displayed, and a deeply felt compassion for mankind, irrespective of wealth and age. His immediate family—his wife Saskia, his son Titus and his common-law wife Hendrickje—often figured prominently in his paintings, many of which had mythical, biblical or historical themes.


Periods, themes and styles

Throughout his career Rembrandt took as his primary subjects the themes of portraiture, landscape and narrative painting. For the last, he was especially praised by his contemporaries, who extolled him as a masterly interpreter of biblical stories for his skill in representing emotions and attention to detail. Stylistically, his paintings progressed from the early "smooth" manner, characterized by fine technique in the portrayal of illusionistic form, to the late "rough" treatment of richly variegated paint surfaces, which allowed for an illusionism of form suggested by the tactile quality of the paint itself. A parallel development may be seen in Rembrandt's skill as a printmaker. In the etchings of his maturity, particularly from the late 1640s onward, the freedom and breadth of his drawings and paintings found expression in the print medium as well. The works encompass a wide range of subject matter and technique, sometimes leaving large areas of white paper to suggest space, at other times employing complex webs of line to produce rich dark tones. It was during Rembrandt's Leiden period (1625–1631) that Lastman's influence was most prominent. It is also likely that at this time Lievens had a strong impact on his work as well.van de Wetering, p. 284. Paintings were rather small, but rich in details (for example, in costumes and jewelry). Religious and allegorical themes were favored, as were
tronie A tronie is a type of work common in Dutch Golden Age painting and Flemish Baroque painting that depicts an exaggerated or characteristic facial expression. These works were not intended as portraits but as studies of expression, type, physiognom ...
s. In 1626 Rembrandt produced his first etchings, the wide dissemination of which would largely account for his international fame. In 1629 he completed ''
Judas Repentant, Returning the Pieces of Silver ''Judas Returning the Thirty Pieces of Silver'' is a painting by Rembrandt, now in Mulgrave Castle in Lythe, North Yorkshire. It depicts the story of Matthew the Apostle, Matthew s:Bible (King James)/Matthew#9:9, 27:3: "Then Judas, which had betray ...
'' and ''
The Artist in His Studio ''The Artist in his Studio'' is an oil painting on panel by Rembrandt c. 1628. The painting shows an artist' studio in realist style. It is held by the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, Massachusetts. One critical analysis of the painting comment ...
'', works that evidence his interest in the handling of light and variety of paint application, and constitute the first major progress in his development as a painter. During his early years in Amsterdam (1632–1636), Rembrandt began to paint dramatic biblical and mythological scenes in high contrast and of large format ('' The Blinding of Samson'', 1636, '' Belshazzar's Feast'', c. 1635 ''
Danaë In Greek mythology, Danaë (, ; ; , ) was an Argive princess and mother of the hero Perseus by Zeus. She was credited with founding the city of Ardea in Latium during the Bronze Age. Family Danae was the daughter and only child of King Acris ...
'', 1636 but reworked later), seeking to emulate the baroque style of
Rubens Sir Peter Paul Rubens (; ; 28 June 1577 – 30 May 1640) was a Flemish artist and diplomat from the Duchy of Brabant in the Southern Netherlands (modern-day Belgium). He is considered the most influential artist of the Flemish Baroque traditio ...
. With the occasional help of assistants in Uylenburgh's workshop, he painted numerous portrait commissions both small ( ''Jacob de Gheyn III'') and large (''Portrait of the Shipbuilder Jan Rijcksen and his Wife'', 1633, ''
Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp ''The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp'' is a 1632 oil painting on canvas by Rembrandt housed in the Mauritshuis museum in The Hague, the Netherlands. The painting is regarded as one of Rembrandt's early masterpieces. In the work, Nicolaes Tu ...
'', 1632). By the late 1630s Rembrandt had produced a few paintings and many etchings of landscapes. Often these landscapes highlighted natural drama, featuring uprooted trees and ominous skies (''Cottages before a Stormy Sky'', c. 1641; ''The Three Trees'', 1643). From 1640 his work became less exuberant and more sober in tone, possibly reflecting personal tragedy. Biblical scenes were now derived more often from the New Testament than the
Old Testament The Old Testament (often abbreviated OT) is the first division of the Christian biblical canon, which is based primarily upon the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, a collection of ancient religious Hebrew writings by the Israelites. The ...
, as had been the case before. In 1642 he painted '' The Night Watch'', the most substantial of the important group portrait commissions which he received in this period, and through which he sought to find solutions to compositional and narrative problems that had been attempted in previous works. In the decade following the ''Night Watch'', Rembrandt's paintings varied greatly in size, subject, and style. The previous tendency to create dramatic effects primarily by strong contrasts of light and shadow gave way to the use of frontal lighting and larger and more saturated areas of color. Simultaneously, figures came to be placed parallel to the picture plane. These changes can be seen as a move toward a classical mode of composition and, considering the more expressive use of brushwork as well, may indicate a familiarity with Venetian art (''Susanna and the Elders'', 1637–47). At the same time, there was a marked decrease in painted works in favor of etchings and drawings of landscapes. In these graphic works natural drama eventually made way for quiet Dutch rural scenes. In the 1650s, Rembrandt's style changed again. Colors became richer and brush strokes more pronounced. With these changes, Rembrandt distanced himself from earlier work and current fashion, which increasingly inclined toward fine, detailed works. His use of light becomes more jagged and harsh, and shine becomes almost nonexistent. His singular approach to paint application may have been suggested in part by familiarity with the work of Titian, and could be seen in the context of the then current discussion of 'finish' and surface quality of paintings. Contemporary accounts sometimes remark disapprovingly of the coarseness of Rembrandt's brushwork, and the artist himself was said to have dissuaded visitors from looking too closely at his paintings. The tactile manipulation of paint may hearken to medieval procedures, when mimetic effects of rendering informed a painting's surface. The result is a richly varied handling of paint, deeply layered and often apparently haphazard, which suggests form and space in both an illusory and highly individual manner. In later years biblical themes were still depicted often, but emphasis shifted from dramatic group scenes to intimate portrait-like figures (''James the Apostle'', 1661). In his last years, Rembrandt painted his most deeply reflective self-portraits (from 1652 to 1669 he painted fifteen), and several moving images of both men and women (''
The Jewish Bride ''The Jewish Bride'' ( nl, Het Joodse bruidje) is a painting by Rembrandt, painted around 1665‒1669. The painting gained its current name in the early 19th century, when an Amsterdam art collector identified the subject as that of a Jewish fath ...
'', c. 1666)—in love, in life, and before God.


Graphic works

Rembrandt produced etchings for most of his career, from 1626 to 1660, when he was forced to sell his printing-press and practically abandoned etching. Only the troubled year of 1649 produced no dated work. He took easily to etching and, though he also learned to use a burin and partly engraved many plates, the freedom of etching technique was fundamental to his work. He was very closely involved in the whole process of printmaking, and must have printed at least early examples of his etchings himself. At first he used a style based on drawing, but soon moved to one based on painting, using a mass of lines and numerous bitings with the acid to achieve different strengths of line. Towards the end of the 1630s, he reacted against this manner and moved to a simpler style, with fewer bitings. He worked on the so-called ''
Hundred Guilder Print The ''Hundred Guilder Print'' is an etching by Rembrandt. The etching's popular name derives from the large sum of money supposedly once paid for an example. It is also called ''Christ healing the sick'', ''Christ with the Sick around Him, Receiv ...
'' in stages throughout the 1640s, and it was the "critical work in the middle of his career", from which his final etching style began to emerge. Although the print only survives in two states, the first very rare, evidence of much reworking can be seen underneath the final print and many drawings survive for elements of it. In the mature works of the 1650s, Rembrandt was more ready to improvise on the plate and large prints typically survive in several states, up to eleven, often radically changed. He now used hatching to create his dark areas, which often take up much of the plate. He also experimented with the effects of printing on different kinds of paper, including Japanese paper, which he used frequently, and on vellum. He began to use "
surface tone In printmaking, surface tone, or surface-tone, is produced by deliberately or accidentally not wiping all the ink off the surface of the printing plate, so that parts of the image have a light tone from the film of ink left. Tone in printmaking me ...
," leaving a thin film of ink on parts of the plate instead of wiping it completely clean to print each impression. He made more use of drypoint, exploiting, especially in landscapes, the rich fuzzy burr that this technique gives to the first few impressions. His prints have similar subjects to his paintings, although the twenty-seven self-portraits are relatively more common, and portraits of other people less so. There are forty-six landscapes, mostly small, which largely set the course for the graphic treatment of landscape until the end of the 19th century. One third of his etchings are of religious subjects, many treated with a homely simplicity, whilst others are his most monumental prints. A few erotic, or just obscene, compositions have no equivalent in his paintings. He owned, until forced to sell it, a magnificent collection of prints by other artists, and many borrowings and influences in his work can be traced to artists as diverse as
Mantegna Mantegna is a surname. Notable people with the name include: * Andrea Mantegna ( – 1506), Italian painter * Gia Mantegna (born 1990), American actress * Joe Mantegna (born 1947), American actor See also * Mantegna Tarocchi The Mantegna Tarocc ...
, Raphael,
Hercules Seghers Hercules Pieterszoon Seghers or Segers ( 1589 – 1638) was a Dutch painter and printmaker of the Dutch Golden Age. Segers is in fact the more common form in contemporary documents, and was used by the painter himself (modern use is about equall ...
, and Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione. Drawings by Rembrandt and his pupils/followers have been extensively studied by many artists and scholars through the centuries. His original draughtsmanship has been described as an individualistic art style that was very similar to East Asian old masters, most notably Chinese masters:Mendelowitz, Daniel Marcus: ''Drawing''. (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1967), p. 305. As Mendelowitz (1967) noted: "Probably no one has combined to as great a degree as Rembrandt a disciplined exposition of what his eye saw and a love of line as a beautiful thing in itself. His "Winter Landscape" displays the virtuosity of performance of an Oriental master, yet unlike the Oriental calligraphy, it is not based on an established convention of brush performance. It is as personal as handwriting." a "combination of formal clarity and calligraphic vitality in the movement of pen or brush that is closer to Chinese painting in technique and feeling than to anything in European art before the twentieth century".Sullivan, Michael: ''The Meeting of Eastern and Western Art''. (Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989), p. 91


Oriental inspiration

Rembrandt was interested in Mughal miniatures, especially around the 1650s. He drew versions of some 23 Mughal paintings, and may have owned an album of them. These miniatures include paintings of
Shah Jahan Shihab-ud-Din Muhammad Khurram (5 January 1592 – 22 January 1666), better known by his regnal name Shah Jahan I (; ), was the fifth emperor of the Mughal Empire, reigning from January 1628 until July 1658. Under his emperorship, the Mugha ...
,
Akbar Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar (25 October 1542 – 27 October 1605), popularly known as Akbar the Great ( fa, ), and also as Akbar I (), was the third Mughal emperor, who reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, Hum ...
,
Jahangir Nur-ud-Din Muhammad Salim (30 August 1569 – 28 October 1627), known by his imperial name Jahangir (; ), was the fourth Mughal Emperor, who ruled from 1605 until he died in 1627. He was named after the Indian Sufi saint, Salim Chishti. Ear ...
and
Dara Shikoh Dara Shikoh ( fa, ), also known as Dara Shukoh, (20 March 1615 – 30 August 1659) was the eldest son and heir-apparent of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. Dara was designated with the title ''Padshahzada-i-Buzurg Martaba'' ("Prince of High Rank" ...
. They may also have influenced the costumes and other aspects of his works.


''The Night Watch''

Rembrandt painted the large painting ''The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq'' between 1640 and 1642. This picture was called ''De Nachtwacht'' by the Dutch and ''The Night Watch'' by Sir
Joshua Reynolds Sir Joshua Reynolds (16 July 1723 – 23 February 1792) was an English painter, specialising in portraits. John Russell said he was one of the major European painters of the 18th century. He promoted the "Grand Style" in painting which depend ...
because by the 18th century the picture was so dimmed and defaced that it was almost indistinguishable, and it looked quite like a night scene. After it was cleaned, it was discovered to represent broad day—a party of
musketeer A musketeer (french: mousquetaire) was a type of soldier equipped with a musket. Musketeers were an important part of early modern warfare particularly in Europe as they normally comprised the majority of their infantry. The musketeer was a pre ...
s stepping from a gloomy courtyard into the blinding sunlight. The piece was commissioned for the new hall of the '' Kloveniersdoelen'', the musketeer branch of the civic militia. Rembrandt departed from convention, which ordered that such genre pieces should be stately and formal, rather a line-up than an action scene. Instead he showed the militia readying themselves to embark on a mission (what kind of mission, an ordinary patrol or some special event, is a matter of debate). Contrary to what is often said, the work was hailed as a success from the beginning. Parts of the canvas were cut off (approximately 20% from the left hand side was removed) to make the painting fit its new position when it was moved to Amsterdam town hall in 1715; the Rijksmuseum has a smaller copy of what is thought to be the full original composition; the four figures in the front are at the centre of the canvas. The painting is now in the
Rijksmuseum The Rijksmuseum () is the national museum of the Netherlands dedicated to Dutch arts and history and is located in Amsterdam. The museum is located at the Museum Square in the borough of Amsterdam South, close to the Van Gogh Museum, the St ...
.


Expert assessments

In 1968 the Rembrandt Research Project began under the sponsorship of the Netherlands Organization for the Advancement of Scientific Research; it was initially expected to last a highly optimistic ten years. Art historians teamed up with experts from other fields to reassess the authenticity of works attributed to Rembrandt, using all methods available, including state-of-the-art technical diagnostics, and to compile a complete new catalogue raisonné of his paintings. As a result of their findings, many paintings that were previously attributed to Rembrandt have been removed from their list, although others have been added back. Many of those removed are now thought to be the work of his students. One example of activity is '' The Polish Rider'', in New York's
Frick Collection The Frick Collection is an art museum in New York City. Its permanent collection (normally at the Henry Clay Frick House, currently at the 945 Madison Avenue#2021–present: Frick Madison, Frick Madison) features Old Master paintings and Europe ...
. Rembrandt's authorship had been questioned by at least one scholar, Alfred von Wurzbach, at the beginning of the twentieth century, but for many decades later most scholars, including the foremost authority writing in English,
Julius S. Held Julius Samuel Held (1905–2002) was an art historian, collector, and expert on Dutch painters Peter Paul Rubens, Anthony van Dyck, and Rembrandt. He published several monographs and was a professor of art history at Barnard College, Columbi ...
, agreed that it was indeed by the master. In the 1980s, however, Dr. Josua Bruyn of the Foundation Rembrandt Research Project cautiously and tentatively attributed the painting to one of Rembrandt's closest and most talented pupils, Willem Drost, about whom little is known. But Bruyn's remained a minority opinion, the suggestion of Drost's authorship is now generally rejected, and the Frick itself never changed its own attribution, the label still reading "Rembrandt" and not "attributed to" or "school of". More recent opinion has shifted even more decisively in favor of the Frick, with Simon Schama (in his 1999 book ''Rembrandt's Eyes'') and the Rembrandt Project scholar Ernst van de Wetering (Melbourne Symposium, 1997) both arguing for attribution to the master. Those few scholars who still question Rembrandt's authorship feel that the execution is uneven, and favour different attributions for different parts of the work. A similar issue was raised by Simon Schama in his book ''Rembrandt's Eyes'' concerning the verification of titles associated with the subject matter depicted in Rembrandt's works. For example, the exact subject being portrayed in ''
Aristotle with a Bust of Homer ''Aristotle with a Bust of Homer'' ( nl, Aristoteles bij de buste van Homerus), also known as ''Aristotle Contemplating a Bust of Homer'', is an oil-on-canvas painting by Rembrandt that depicts Aristotle wearing a gold chain and contemplating a ...
'' (recently retitled by curators at the Metropolitan Museum) has been directly challenged by Schama applying the scholarship of Paul Crenshaw. Schama presents a substantial argument that it was the famous ancient Greek painter
Apelles Apelles of Kos (; grc-gre, Ἀπελλῆς; fl. 4th century BC) was a renowned painter of ancient Greece. Pliny the Elder, to whom much of modern scholars' knowledge of this artist is owed (''Naturalis Historia'' 35.36.79–97 and ''passim'' ...
who is depicted in contemplation by Rembrandt and not Aristotle. Another painting, ''Pilate Washing His Hands'', is also of questionable attribution. Critical opinion of this picture has varied since 1905, when Wilhelm von Bode described it as "a somewhat abnormal work" by Rembrandt. Scholars have since dated the painting to the 1660s and assigned it to an anonymous pupil, possibly Aert de Gelder. The composition bears superficial resemblance to mature works by Rembrandt but lacks the master's command of illumination and modeling. The attribution and re-attribution work is ongoing. In 2005 four oil paintings previously attributed to Rembrandt's students were reclassified as the work of Rembrandt himself: ''Study of an Old Man in Profile'' and ''Study of an Old Man with a Beard'' from a US private collection, ''
Study of a Weeping Woman ''A Woman Weeping'', also known as ''A Weeping Woman'' or ''Study of a Weeping Woman'', is a 1644 oil on oak panel painting, now in the Detroit Institute of Arts. It almost exactly corresponds to the kneeling woman in Rembrandt's '' The Woman Ta ...
'', owned by the Detroit Institute of Arts, and ''Portrait of an Elderly Woman in a White Bonnet'', painted in 1640. The ''Old Man Sitting in a Chair'' is a further example: in 2014, Professor
Ernst van de Wetering Ernst van de Wetering (9 March 1938 – 11 August 2021) was a Dutch art historian and an expert on Rembrandt and his work. Background Ernst van de Wetering was born in Hengelo. He was first trained as an artist at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts ...
offered his view to '' The Guardian'' that the demotion of the 1652 painting ''Old Man Sitting in a Chair'' "was a vast mistake...it is a most important painting. The painting needs to be seen in terms of Rembrandt's experimentation". This was highlighted much earlier by
Nigel Konstam Nigel Konstam (8 December 1932 – 19 July 2022) was a British sculptor and art historian who has researched the history of art and lectured internationally on art historical subjects. He specialised in exploring the development of Man's ability ...
who studied Rembrandt throughout his career. Rembrandt's own studio practice is a major factor in the difficulty of attribution, since, like many masters before him, he encouraged his students to copy his paintings, sometimes finishing or retouching them to be sold as originals, and sometimes selling them as authorized copies. Additionally, his style proved easy enough for his most talented students to emulate. Further complicating matters is the uneven quality of some of Rembrandt's own work, and his frequent stylistic evolutions and experiments. As well, there were later imitations of his work, and restorations which so seriously damaged the original works that they are no longer recognizable. It is highly likely that there will never be universal agreement as to what does and what does not constitute a genuine Rembrandt.


Painting materials

Technical investigation of Rembrandt's paintings in the possession of the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister and in the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister (Kassel) was conducted by Hermann Kühn in 1977. The pigment analyses of some thirty paintings have shown that Rembrandt's palette consisted of the following pigments: lead white, various
ochres Ochre ( ; , ), or ocher in American English, is a natural clay earth pigment, a mixture of ferric oxide and varying amounts of clay and sand. It ranges in colour from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the colours produced ...
, Vandyke brown, bone black,
charcoal black Soot ( ) is a mass of impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. It is more properly restricted to the product of the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly extended to include the residual pyrolysed ...
, lamp black, vermilion, madder lake, azurite, ultramarine,
yellow lake Yellow is the color between green and orange on the spectrum of light. It is evoked by light with a dominant wavelength of roughly 575585 nm. It is a primary color in subtractive color systems, used in painting or color printing. In the R ...
and lead-tin-yellow. One painting (Saskia van Uylenburgh as Flora) reportedly contains gamboge. Rembrandt very rarely used pure blue or green colors, the most pronounced exception being ''Belshazzar's Feast''Bomford, D. et al., Art in the making: Rembrandt, New edition, Yale University Press, 2006 in the
National Gallery in London The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster, in Central London, England. Founded in 1824, it houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The current Director of ...
. The book by Bomford describes more recent technical investigations and pigment analyses of Rembrandt's paintings predominantly in the National Gallery in London. The entire array of pigments employed by Rembrandt can be found at ColourLex. The best source for technical information on Rembrandt's paintings on the web is the Rembrandt Database containing all works of Rembrandt with detailed investigative reports, infrared and radiography images and other scientific details.


Name and signature

"Rembrandt" is a modification of the spelling of the artist's first name that he introduced in 1633. "Harmenszoon" indicates that his father's name is Harmen. "van Rijn" indicates that his family lived near the Rhine. Roughly speaking, his earliest signatures (c. 1625) consisted of an initial "R", or the monogram "RH" (for Rembrant Harmenszoon), and starting in 1629, "RHL" (the "L" stood, presumably, for Leiden). In 1632, he used this monogram early in the year, then added his family name to it, "RHL-van Rijn", but replaced this form in that same year and began using his first name alone with its original spelling, "Rembrant". In 1633 he added a "d", and maintained this form consistently from then on, proving that this minor change had a meaning for him (whatever it might have been). This change is purely visual; it does not change the way his name is pronounced. Curiously enough, despite the large number of paintings and etchings signed with this modified first name, most of the documents that mentioned him during his lifetime retained the original "Rembrant" spelling. (Note: the rough chronology of signature forms above applies to the paintings, and to a lesser degree to the etchings; from 1632, presumably, there is only one etching signed "RHL-v. Rijn," the large-format "Raising of Lazarus," B 73). His practice of signing his work with his first name, later followed by Vincent van Gogh, was probably inspired by Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci and
Michelangelo Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (; 6 March 1475 – 18 February 1564), known as Michelangelo (), was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet of the High Renaissance. Born in the Republic of Florence, his work was insp ...
who, then as now, were referred to by their first names alone.


Workshop

Rembrandt ran a large workshop and had many pupils. The list of Rembrandt pupils from his period in Leiden as well as his time in Amsterdam is quite long, mostly because his influence on painters around him was so great that it is difficult to tell whether someone worked for him in his studio or just copied his style for patrons eager to acquire a Rembrandt. A partial list should include Ferdinand Bol, Adriaen Brouwer, Gerrit Dou, Willem Drost, Heiman Dullaart, Gerbrand van den Eeckhout,
Carel Fabritius Carel Pietersz. Fabritius (; bapt. 27 February 1622 – 12 October 1654) was a Dutch painter. He was a pupil of Rembrandt and worked in his studio in Amsterdam. Fabritius, who was a member of the Delft School, developed his own artistic style ...
,
Govert Flinck Govert (or Govaert) Teuniszoon Flinck (25 January 16152 February 1660) was a Dutch painter of the Dutch Golden Age. Life Born at Kleve, capital of the Duchy of Cleves, which was occupied at the time by the United Provinces, he was apprenticed by ...
,
Hendrick Fromantiou Hendrik de Fromantiou (1633 – after 1693) was a Dutch still life painter. Early life Fromantiou was born in Maastricht. In his youth, he produced works for the art dealer Gerrit van Uylenburgh in Amsterdam and from 1658, he was active in ...
, Aert de Gelder,
Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten (2 August 1627, in Dordrecht – 19 October 1678, in Dordrecht) was a Dutch painter of the Golden Age, who was also a poet and author on art theory. Biography Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten trained first with his fat ...
,
Abraham Janssens Abraham Janssens I, Abraham Janssen I or Abraham Janssens van Nuyssen (1575–1632) was a Flemish painter, who is known principally for his large religious and mythological works, which show the influence of Caravaggio. He was the leading histor ...
,
Godfrey Kneller Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1st Baronet (born Gottfried Kniller; 8 August 1646 – 19 October 1723), was the leading portrait painter in England during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, and was court painter to Kingdom of England, English and Br ...
,
Philip de Koninck Philip de Koninck, or Philips Koninck (5 November 1619 – 4 October 1688 was a Dutch landscape painter and younger brother of Jacob Koninck.
,
Jacob Levecq Jacob Levecq (1634–1675), né Jacques L'Evesque, who signed his name J. Leveck or J. L., and was also referred to as Jakob Lavecq, Jacobus Levecq, Jacobus L'Evesque, and Jacobus Lavecq, was a Dutch Golden Age painter trained by Rembrandt. Bio ...
,
Nicolaes Maes Nicolaes Maes (January 1634December 1693 (buried 24 December 1693)) was a Dutch painter known for his genre scenes, portraits, religious compositions and the occasional still life. A pupil of Rembrandt in Amsterdam, he returned to work in his n ...
, Jürgen Ovens,
Christopher Paudiß ''Loth und seine Töchter'' (around 1649, Budapest) Christoph(er) Paudißalso written: Pautitz, Paudiss or Bauditz (Karl Bosl: ''Bosls Bayerische Biographie'', Regensburg, Pustet, 1983, S. 574), or Christopher Paudiß (Dombergmuseum Freising/ref> ...
, Willem de Poorter, Jan Victors, and
Willem van der Vliet Willem van der Vliet (c. 1584 – 6 December 1642) was a Dutch Golden Age painter. Biography Van der Vliet was born and died in Delft. According to Houbraken his paintings are historical allegories and portraits. Records of his paintings ...
.


Museum collections

The most notable collections of Rembrandt's work are at Amsterdam's
Rijksmuseum The Rijksmuseum () is the national museum of the Netherlands dedicated to Dutch arts and history and is located in Amsterdam. The museum is located at the Museum Square in the borough of Amsterdam South, close to the Van Gogh Museum, the St ...
, including '' The Night Watch'' and ''
The Jewish Bride ''The Jewish Bride'' ( nl, Het Joodse bruidje) is a painting by Rembrandt, painted around 1665‒1669. The painting gained its current name in the early 19th century, when an Amsterdam art collector identified the subject as that of a Jewish fath ...
'', the
Mauritshuis The Mauritshuis (; en, Maurice House) is an art museum in The Hague, Netherlands. The museum houses the Royal Cabinet of Paintings which consists of 854 objects, mostly Dutch Golden Age paintings. The collection contains works by Johannes Vermeer ...
in The Hague, the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, the National Gallery in London, Gemäldegalerie in Berlin, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister in Dresden,
The Louvre The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is the world's most-visited museum, and an historic landmark in Paris, France. It is the home of some of the best-known works of art, including the ''Mona Lisa'' and the ''Venus de Milo''. A central l ...
,
Nationalmuseum, Stockholm Nationalmuseum (or National Museum of Fine Arts) is the national gallery of Sweden, located on the peninsula Blasieholmen in central Stockholm. The museum's operations stretches far beyond the borders of Blasieholmen, the nationalmuseum manage ...
, and Schloss Wilhelmshöhe in Kassel. The Royal Castle in Warsaw displays two paintings by Rembrandt. Notable collections of Rembrandt's paintings in the United States are housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and
Frick Collection The Frick Collection is an art museum in New York City. Its permanent collection (normally at the Henry Clay Frick House, currently at the 945 Madison Avenue#2021–present: Frick Madison, Frick Madison) features Old Master paintings and Europe ...
in New York City, the
National Gallery of Art The National Gallery of Art, and its attached Sculpture Garden, is a national art museum in Washington, D.C., United States, located on the National Mall, between 3rd and 9th Streets, at Constitution Avenue NW. Open to the public and free of char ...
in Washington, D.C., Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, and J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles. The
Rembrandt House Museum The Rembrandt House Museum ( nl, Museum Het Rembrandthuis) is a museum located in a former house in the Jodenbreestraat, in the center of Amsterdam. Between 1639 and 1658, the house was occupied by the well-known Dutch painter Rembrandt van Rijn ...
in central Amsterdam in the house he bought at the height of his success, has furnishings that are mostly not original, but period pieces comparable to those Rembrandt might have had, and paintings reflecting Rembrandt's use of the house for art dealing. His printmaking studio has been set up with a printing press, where replica prints are printed. The museum has a few Rembrandt paintings, many loaned, but an important collection of his prints, a good selection of which are on rotating display. All major print rooms have large collections of Rembrandt prints, although as some exist in only a single impression, no collection is complete. The degree to which these collections are displayed to the public, or can easily be viewed by them in the print room, varies greatly.


Influence and recognition

Rembrandt is one of the most famous and the best expertly researched visual artists in history. Slive, Seymour: ''Rembrandt and his Critics, 1630–1730''. (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1953) His life and art have long attracted the attention of interdisciplinary scholarship such as art history, socio-political history, cultural history, education, humanities, philosophy and aesthetics, psychology, sociology, literary studies, anatomy, medicine, religious studies, theology,
Jewish studies Jewish studies (or Judaic studies; he, מדעי היהדות, madey ha-yahadut, sciences of Judaism) is an academic discipline centered on the study of Jews and Judaism. Jewish studies is interdisciplinary and combines aspects of history (esp ...
,
Oriental studies Oriental studies is the academic field that studies Near Eastern and Far Eastern societies and cultures, languages, peoples, history and archaeology. In recent years, the subject has often been turned into the newer terms of Middle Eastern studi ...
(
Asian studies Asian studies is the term used usually in North America and Australia for what in Europe is known as Oriental studies. The field is concerned with the Asian people, their cultures, languages, history and politics. Within the Asian sphere, Asian ...
), global studies, and art market research. He has been the subject of a vast amount of literature in genres of both fiction and nonfiction. Research and scholarship related to Rembrandt is an academic field in its own right with many notable connoisseurs and scholars and has been very dynamic since the Dutch Golden Age. According to art historian and Rembrandt scholar Stephanie Dickey:
embrandtearned international renown as a painter, printmaker, teacher, and art collector while never leaving the Dutch Republic. In his home city of Leiden and in Amsterdam, where he worked for nearly forty years, he mentored generations of other painters and produced a body of work that has never ceased to attract admiration, critique, and interpretation. (...) Rembrandt's art is a key component in any study of the Dutch Golden Age, and his membership in the canon of artistic genius is well established, but he is also a figure whose significance transcends specialist interest. Literary critics have pondered "Rembrandt" as a "cultural text"; novelists, playwrights, and filmmakers have romanticized his life, and in popular culture, his name has become synonymous with excellence for products and services, ranging from toothpaste to self-help advice.Franits, Wayne (ed.): ''The Ashgate Research Companion to Dutch Art of the Seventeenth Century''. (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2016)
Francisco Goya, often considered to be among the last of the
Old Masters In art history, "Old Master" (or "old master")Old Masters De ...
, said, "I have had three masters: Nature, Velázquez, and Rembrandt." ("Yo no he tenido otros maestros que la Naturaleza, Velázquez y Rembrandt.") In the history of the reception and interpretation of Rembrandt's art, it was the significant Rembrandt-inspired 'revivals' or 'rediscoveries' in 18th–19th century France, Germany, and Britain that decisively helped in establishing his lasting fame in subsequent centuries. When a critic referred to
Auguste Rodin François Auguste René Rodin (12 November 184017 November 1917) was a French sculptor, generally considered the founder of modern sculpture. He was schooled traditionally and took a craftsman-like approach to his work. Rodin possessed a uniqu ...
's busts in the same vein as Rembrandt's portraits, the French sculptor responded: "Compare me with Rembrandt? What sacrilege! With Rembrandt, the colossus of Art! What are you thinking of, my friend! We should prostrate ourselves before Rembrandt and never compare anyone with him!” Vincent van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo (1885), "Rembrandt goes so deep into the mysterious that he says things for which there are no words in any language. It is with justice that they call Rembrandt—magician—that's no easy occupation."


Rembrandt and the Jewish world

Although Rembrandt was not Jewish, he has had a considerable influence on many modern Jewish artists, writers and scholars (
art critic An art critic is a person who is specialized in analyzing, interpreting, and evaluating art. Their written critiques or reviews contribute to art criticism and they are published in newspapers, magazines, books, exhibition brochures, and catalogue ...
s and art historians in particular). The German-Jewish painter
Max Liebermann Max Liebermann (20 July 1847 – 8 February 1935) was a German painter and printmaker, and one of the leading proponents of Impressionism in Germany and continental Europe. In addition to his activity as an artist, he also assembled an important ...
said, "Whenever I see a
Frans Hals Frans Hals the Elder (, , ; – 26 August 1666) was a Dutch Golden Age painter, chiefly of individual and group portraits and of genre works, who lived and worked in Haarlem. Hals played an important role in the evolution of 17th-century group ...
, I feel like painting; whenever I see a Rembrandt, I feel like giving up."
Marc Chagall Marc Chagall; russian: link=no, Марк Заха́рович Шага́л ; be, Марк Захаравіч Шагал . (born Moishe Shagal; 28 March 1985) was a Russian-French artist. An early modernism, modernist, he was associated with se ...
wrote in 1922, "Neither
Imperial Russia The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the List of Russian monarchs, Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended th ...
, nor the Russia of the
Soviets Soviet people ( rus, сове́тский наро́д, r=sovyétsky naród), or citizens of the USSR ( rus, гра́ждане СССР, grázhdanye SSSR), was an umbrella demonym for the population of the Soviet Union. Nationality policy in th ...
needs me. They don't understand me. I am a stranger to them," and he added, "I'm certain Rembrandt loves me."


Criticism of Rembrandt

Rembrandt has also been one of the most controversial (visual) artists in history. Several of Rembrandt's notable critics include Constantijn Huygens, Joachim von Sandrart,
Andries Pels Andries Pels (2 September 1655, in Amsterdam – 8 February 1731) was a rich Dutch banker and insurer from Amsterdam. He was the banker of France in the era of John Law. He was nephew of his namesake, poet Andries Pels, and cousin to the colon ...
(who called Rembrandt "the first heretic in the art of painting"), Samuel van Hoogstraten,
Arnold Houbraken Arnold Houbraken (28 March 1660 – 14 October 1719) was a Dutch painter and writer from Dordrecht, now remembered mainly as a biographer of Dutch Golden Age painters. Life Houbraken was sent first to learn ''threadtwisting'' (Twyndraat) fr ...
, Von Sandrart, Joachim; Baldinucci, Filippo; Houbraken, Arnold: ''Lives of Rembrandt''
ives of the Artists Ives is both a surname and a given name. Notable people with the name include: Surname: * Alice Emma Ives (1876–1930), American dramatist, journalist * Burl Ives (1909–1995), American singer, author and actor * Charles Ives (1874–1954), Amer ...
Introduced by Charles Ford. (Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2018)
Filippo Baldinucci Filippo Baldinucci (3 June 1625 – 10 January 1696) was an Italian art historian and biographer. Life Baldinucci is considered among the most significant Florentine biographers/historians of the artists and the arts of the Baroque period ...
, Gerard de Lairesse,
Roger de Piles Roger de Piles (7 October 1635 – 5 April 1709) was a French painter, engraver, art critic and diplomat. Life Born in Clamecy, Roger de Piles studied philosophy and theology, and devoted himself to painting. In 1662 he became tutor to Miche ...
, John Ruskin,Nichols, Aidan: ''All Great Art is Praise: Art and Religion in John Ruskin''. (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 2016), p. 454. In Ruskin' words, "It is the aim of the best painters to paint the noblest things they can see by sunlight. It was the aim of Rembrandt to paint the foulest things he could see – by rushlight." and
Eugène Fromentin Eugène Fromentin (24 October 182027 August 1876) was a French painter and writer, now better remembered for his writings. Life He was born in La Rochelle. After leaving school he studied for some years under Louis Cabat, the landscape painter. ...
.


In popular culture

While shooting ''The Warrens of Virginia'' (1915), Cecil B. DeMille had experimented with lighting instruments borrowed from a Los Angeles opera house. When business partner
Sam Goldwyn Samuel Goldwyn (born Szmuel Gelbfisz; yi, שמואל געלבפֿיש; August 27, 1882 (claimed) January 31, 1974), also known as Samuel Goldfish, was a Polish-born American film producer. He was best known for being the founding contributor an ...
saw a scene in which only half an actor's face was illuminated, he feared the exhibitors would pay only half the price for the picture. DeMille remonstrated that it was
Rembrandt lighting Rembrandt lighting is a standard lighting technique that is used in studio portrait photography and cinematography; it is also used in contrast with butterfly lighting It can be achieved using one light and a reflector, or two lights, and is po ...
. "Sam's reply was jubilant with relief," recalled DeMille. "For Rembrandt lighting the exhibitors would pay double!"


Works about Rembrandt


Literary works (e.g. poetry and fiction)

* ''To the Picture of Rembrandt'' (Russian-language poem by Mikhail Lermontov, 1830) * '' Gaspard de la nuit: Fantaisies à la manière de Rembrandt et de Callot'' (French-language prose poems by Aloysius Bertrand, 1842) * '' Picture This'' (1988 novel by Joseph Heller) * ''Moi, la Putain de Rembrandt'' (French-language novel by Sylvie Matton, 1998) * ''Van Rijn'' (2006 novel by Sarah Emily Miano) * ''
I Am Rembrandt's Daughter ''I Am Rembrandt's Daughter'' is a 2007, young adult historical fiction novel by Lynn Cullen about the famous artist Rembrandt van Rijn's daughter Cornelia van Rijn (1654-1684). In Cullen's version of the story, Cornelia finds that she is not ...
'' (2007 novel by Lynn Cullen) * ''
The Rembrandt Affair ''The Rembrandt Affair'' is a 2010 spy novel by Daniel Silva. It is the tenth in the Gabriel Allon series, based in the world of Israeli intelligence. Plot Gabriel Allon and his team seek a lost Rembrandt whose previous owners have included ...
'' (2011 novel by Daniel Silva) * ''The Anatomy Lesson'' (2014 novel by Nina Siegal) * ''Rembrandt's Mirror'' (2015 novel by Kim Devereux)


Films

* ''
The Stolen Rembrandt ''The'' () is a grammatical article in English, denoting persons or things already mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite article in English. ''The'' is the m ...
'' (1914 film directed by Leo D. Maloney and J.P. McGowan) * ''
The Tragedy of a Great ''The Tragedy of a Great'' (german: Die Tragödie eines Großen) is a 1920 German silent historical film directed by Arthur Günsburg and starring Carl de Vogt, Sybill Morel, and Wilhelm Diegelmann Wilhelm Diegelmann (28 September 1861 – ...
'' / ''Die Tragödie eines Großen'' (1920 film directed by Arthur Günsburg) * '' The Missing Rembrandt'' (1932 film directed by
Leslie S. Hiscott Leslie Stephenson Hiscott (25 July 18943 May 1968) was an English film director and screenwriter who made over sixty films between 1925 and 1956. He was born in London in 1894. He directed ''Alibi'' (1931), the first ever depiction of Hercule ...
) * ''
Rembrandt Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (, ; 15 July 1606 – 4 October 1669), usually simply known as Rembrandt, was a Dutch Golden Age painter, printmaker and draughtsman. An innovative and prolific master in three media, he is generally consid ...
'' (1936 film directed by Alexander Korda) * ''
Rembrandt Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (, ; 15 July 1606 – 4 October 1669), usually simply known as Rembrandt, was a Dutch Golden Age painter, printmaker and draughtsman. An innovative and prolific master in three media, he is generally consid ...
'' (1940 film) * ''Rembrandt in de schuilkelder'' / ''Rembrandt in the Bunker'' (1941 film directed by Gerard Rutten) * ''
Rembrandt Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (, ; 15 July 1606 – 4 October 1669), usually simply known as Rembrandt, was a Dutch Golden Age painter, printmaker and draughtsman. An innovative and prolific master in three media, he is generally consid ...
'' (1942 film directed by Hans Steinhoff) * '' Rembrandt: A Self-Portrait'' (1954 documentary film by Morrie Roizman) * ''Rembrandt, schilder van de mens'' / ''Rembrandt, Painter of Man'' (1957 film directed by Bert Haanstra) * ''
Rembrandt fecit 1669 '' Rembrandt fecit 1669 '' is a 1977 Dutch film directed by Jos Stelling. Cast * Frans Stelling - The young Rembrandt * Ton de Koff - The old Rembrandt * Lucie Singeling - Saskia van Uylenburg * Aya Gill - Hendrikje Stoffels * Hanneke van der ...
'' (1977 film directed by Jos Stelling) * ''Rembrandt: The Public Eye and the Private Gaze'' (1992 documentary film by Simon Schama) * ''
Rembrandt Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (, ; 15 July 1606 – 4 October 1669), usually simply known as Rembrandt, was a Dutch Golden Age painter, printmaker and draughtsman. An innovative and prolific master in three media, he is generally consid ...
'' (1999 film directed by
Charles Matton Charles Matton, also known as Gabriel Pasqualini, (13 September 1931 – 19 November 2008) was a multitalented French artist: painter, sculptor, illustrator, writer, photographer, screenwriter and a movie director. Illustrations In the 197 ...
) * '' Rembrandt: Fathers & Sons'' (1999 film directed by David Devine) * '' Stealing Rembrandt'' (2003 film directed by
Jannik Johansen Jannik Johansen (born 1965) is a Danish film director and screenwriter. He began film-making at Per Holst Film in the late 1980s, thereafter directed and edited television productions and short fiction. He wrote and directed a number of short fic ...
and
Anders Thomas Jensen Anders Thomas Jensen (born 6 April 1972) is a Danish screenwriter and film director. His film ''Election Night (1998 film), Election Night'' won the 1998 Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film. Life and career Jensen was born in Frederi ...
) * ''
Simon Schama's Power of Art ''Simon Schama's Power of Art'' is an eight-part BBC TV mini-series examining the works of eight artists, the context surrounding one of their works and the message they intended to convey with these. It was written, created, narrated, and presen ...
: Rembrandt'' (2006 BBC documentary film series by Simon Schama) * ''
Nightwatching ''Nightwatching'' is a 2007 film about the artist Rembrandt and the creation of his 1642 painting ''The Night Watch''. The film is directed by Peter Greenaway and stars Martin Freeman as Rembrandt, with Eva Birthistle as his wife Saskia van Uyle ...
'' (2007 film directed by Peter Greenaway) * '' Rembrandt's J'Accuse'' (2008 documentary film by Peter Greenaway) * '' Rembrandt en ik'' (2011 film directed by Marleen Gorris) * ''Schama on Rembrandt: Masterpieces of the Late Years'' (2014 documentary film by Simon Schama) * ''Rembrandt: From the National Gallery, London and Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam'' (2014 documentary film by Exhibition on Screen)


Selected works

* ''
The Stoning of Saint Stephen ''The Stoning of Saint Stephen'' is the first signed painting by Dutch artist Rembrandt, made in 1625 at the age of 19. one of his earlier works is an oil painting on a wood panel and currently exhibited at the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon. Th ...
'' (1625) – Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon * ''
Andromeda Chained to the Rocks ''Andromeda Chained to the Rocks'' (1630) is a 34 by 24.5 cm oil-on-panel painting by the Dutch Golden Age painter Rembrandt. It is now in the Mauritshuis, The Hague, Netherlands. Andromeda represents Rembrandt's first full length mythological ...
'' (1630) –
Mauritshuis The Mauritshuis (; en, Maurice House) is an art museum in The Hague, Netherlands. The museum houses the Royal Cabinet of Paintings which consists of 854 objects, mostly Dutch Golden Age paintings. The collection contains works by Johannes Vermeer ...
, The Hague
* ''
Jacob de Gheyn III Jacob de Gheyn III, also known as Jacob III de Gheyn (1596–1641), was a Dutch Golden Age engraver, son of Jacob de Gheyn II, canon of Utrecht (city), and the subject of a 1632 oil painting by Rembrandt. The portrait is half of a pai ...
'' (1632) – Dulwich Picture Gallery, London * '' Philosopher in Meditation'' (1632) –
The Louvre The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is the world's most-visited museum, and an historic landmark in Paris, France. It is the home of some of the best-known works of art, including the ''Mona Lisa'' and the ''Venus de Milo''. A central l ...
, Paris
* ''
The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp ''The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp'' is a 1632 oil painting on canvas by Rembrandt housed in the Mauritshuis museum in The Hague, the Netherlands. The painting is regarded as one of Rembrandt's early masterpieces. In the work, Nicolaes Tu ...
'' (1632) –
Mauritshuis The Mauritshuis (; en, Maurice House) is an art museum in The Hague, Netherlands. The museum houses the Royal Cabinet of Paintings which consists of 854 objects, mostly Dutch Golden Age paintings. The collection contains works by Johannes Vermeer ...
, The Hague
* ''
Artemisia Artemisia may refer to: People * Artemisia I of Caria (fl. 480 BC), queen of Halicarnassus under the First Persian Empire, naval commander during the second Persian invasion of Greece * Artemisia II of Caria (died 350 BC), queen of Caria under th ...
'' (1634) – oil on canvas, 142 × 152 cm,
Museo del Prado The Prado Museum ( ; ), officially known as Museo Nacional del Prado, is the main Spanish national art museum, located in central Madrid. It is widely considered to house one of the world's finest collections of European art, dating from the ...
, Madrid
* '' Descent from the Cross'' (1634) – oil on canvas, 158 × 117 cm, looted from the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), Germany in 1806, currently Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg * '' Belshazzar's Feast'' (1635) – National Gallery, London * '' The Prodigal Son in the Tavern'' (c. 1635) – oil on canvas, 161 × 131 cm Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden * ''
Danaë In Greek mythology, Danaë (, ; ; , ) was an Argive princess and mother of the hero Perseus by Zeus. She was credited with founding the city of Ardea in Latium during the Bronze Age. Family Danae was the daughter and only child of King Acris ...
'' (1636 – c. 1643) – Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg * ''
The Scholar at the Lectern ''The Scholar at the Lectern'' or ''The Father of the Jewish Bride'' is a 1641 oil on panel painting by the Dutch artist Rembrandt. With ''The Girl in a Picture Frame'' (also known as ''The Jewish Bride'') and ''Landscape with the Good Samaritan'' ...
'' (1641) –
Royal Castle in Warsaw The Royal Castle in Warsaw ( pl, Zamek Królewski w Warszawie) is a state museum and a national historical monument, which formerly served as the official royal residence of several Polish monarchs. The personal offices of the king and the adm ...
, Warsaw
* ''
The Girl in a Picture Frame ''The Girl in a Picture Frame'' is a 1641 oil on panel painting by the Dutch artist Rembrandt. It is also known as ''The Jewish Bride'' and ''The Girl in a Hat''. With '' The Scholar at the Lectern'' and ''Landscape with the Good Samaritan'', it ...
'' (1641) – Royal Castle, Warsaw * '' The Night Watch'', formally ''The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq'' (1642) –
Rijksmuseum The Rijksmuseum () is the national museum of the Netherlands dedicated to Dutch arts and history and is located in Amsterdam. The museum is located at the Museum Square in the borough of Amsterdam South, close to the Van Gogh Museum, the St ...
, Amsterdam
* ''Christ Healing the Sick'' ( etching c. 1643, also known as the ''
Hundred Guilder Print The ''Hundred Guilder Print'' is an etching by Rembrandt. The etching's popular name derives from the large sum of money supposedly once paid for an example. It is also called ''Christ healing the sick'', ''Christ with the Sick around Him, Receiv ...
''), nicknamed for the huge sum paid for it * '' Boaz and Ruth'' (1643) aka ''The Old Rabbi'' or ''Old Man'' – Woburn Abbey/ Gemaldegalerie, Berlin * '' The Mill'' (1645/48) –
National Gallery of Art The National Gallery of Art, and its attached Sculpture Garden, is a national art museum in Washington, D.C., United States, located on the National Mall, between 3rd and 9th Streets, at Constitution Avenue NW. Open to the public and free of char ...
, Washington, D.C.
* ''
Old Man with a Gold Chain ''Old Man with a Gold Chain'' is a portrait by Rembrandt, painted around 1631 and now in the Art Institute of Chicago. This painting was documented by Hofstede de Groot as a portrait of Rembrandt's father in 1915, who wrote:675. HARMEN GERRITS ...
'' ("''Old Man with a Black Hat and Gorget''") (c. 1631)
Art Institute of Chicago The Art Institute of Chicago in Chicago's Grant Park, founded in 1879, is one of the oldest and largest art museums in the world. Recognized for its curatorial efforts and popularity among visitors, the museum hosts approximately 1.5 mill ...
* ''
Susanna and the Elders Susanna (; : "lily"), also called Susanna and the Elders, is a narrative included in the Book of Daniel (as chapter 13) by the Catholic Church, Oriental Orthodox Churches and Eastern Orthodox Churches. It is one of the additions to Daniel, plac ...
'' (1647) – oil on panel, 76 × 91 cm, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin * ''Head of Christ'' (c. 1648–56) – The Philadelphia Museum of Art * ''
Aristotle Contemplating a Bust of Homer ''Aristotle with a Bust of Homer'' ( nl, Aristoteles bij de buste van Homerus), also known as ''Aristotle Contemplating a Bust of Homer'', is an oil-on-canvas painting by Rembrandt that depicts Aristotle wearing a gold chain and contemplating a s ...
'' (1653) – Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York * '' Bathsheba at Her Bath'' (1654) – The Louvre, Paris * ''Christ Presented to the People (Ecce Homo)'' (1655) – Drypoint, Birmingham Museum of Art * ''Selfportrait'' (1658) –
Frick Collection The Frick Collection is an art museum in New York City. Its permanent collection (normally at the Henry Clay Frick House, currently at the 945 Madison Avenue#2021–present: Frick Madison, Frick Madison) features Old Master paintings and Europe ...
, New York
* ''The Three Crosses'' (1660) Etching, fourth state * ''
Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther The painting ''Ahasveros and Haman at the Feast of Esther'' is one of the few works of Rembrandt van Rijn whose complete provenance is known. The origin of the painting can be traced back to 1662, two years after its completion. Subject The sub ...
'' (1660) –
Pushkin Museum The Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts (russian: Музей изобразительных искусств имени А. С. Пушкина, abbreviated as ) is the largest museum of European art in Moscow, located in Volkhonka street, just oppo ...
, Moscow
* ''
The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis ''The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis'' ( nl, De samenzwering van de Bataven onder Claudius Civilis; sv, Batavernas trohetsed till Claudius Civilis) is an oil painting by the Dutch painter Rembrandt, c. 1661–62, which was originally the larges ...
'' (1661) –
Nationalmuseum Nationalmuseum (or National Museum of Fine Arts) is the national gallery of Sweden, located on the peninsula Blasieholmen in central Stockholm. The museum's operations stretches far beyond the borders of Blasieholmen, the nationalmuseum manag ...
,
Stockholm Stockholm () is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in Sweden by population, largest city of Sweden as well as the List of urban areas in the Nordic countries, largest urban area in Scandinavia. Approximately 980,000 people liv ...
( Claudius Civilis led a Dutch revolt against the Romans) (most of the cut up painting is lost, only the central part still exists)
* '' Portrait of Dirck van Os'' (1662) – Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha, Nebraska * ''
Syndics of the Drapers' Guild ''The Sampling Officials'' ( nl, De Staalmeesters), also called ''Syndics of the Drapers’ Guild'' ( nl, De waardijns van het Amsterdamse lakenbereidersgilde), is a 1662 oil painting by Rembrandt. It is currently owned by the Rijksmuseum in Ams ...
'' (Dutch ''De Staalmeesters'', 1662) – Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam * ''
The Jewish Bride ''The Jewish Bride'' ( nl, Het Joodse bruidje) is a painting by Rembrandt, painted around 1665‒1669. The painting gained its current name in the early 19th century, when an Amsterdam art collector identified the subject as that of a Jewish fath ...
'' (1665) – Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam * ''Haman before Esther'' (1665) – National Museum of Art of Romania, Bucharest * ''The Entombment Sketch'' (c. 1639, reworked c. 1654) – oil on oak panel, Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery, Glasgow * ''Saul and David'' (c. 1660–1665) –
Mauritshuis The Mauritshuis (; en, Maurice House) is an art museum in The Hague, Netherlands. The museum houses the Royal Cabinet of Paintings which consists of 854 objects, mostly Dutch Golden Age paintings. The collection contains works by Johannes Vermeer ...
, The Hague
* ''Portrait of an Old Man'' (1645) –
Calouste Gulbenkian Museum The Calouste Gulbenkian Museum houses one of the world's most important private art collections. It includes works from Ancient Egypt to the early 20th century, spanning the arts of the Islamic World, China and Japan, as well as the French de ...
, Lisbon * ''Pallas Athena'' (c.1657) –
Calouste Gulbenkian Museum The Calouste Gulbenkian Museum houses one of the world's most important private art collections. It includes works from Ancient Egypt to the early 20th century, spanning the arts of the Islamic World, China and Japan, as well as the French de ...
, Lisbon


Exhibitions

* Sept–Oct 1898: ''Rembrandt Tentoonstelling'' (''Rembrandt Exhibition''), Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. * Jan–Feb 1899: ''Rembrandt Tentoonstelling'' (''Rembrandt Exhibition''), Royal Academy, London, England. * 21 April 2011 – 18 July 2011: ''Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus'', Musée du Louvre. * 16 September 2013 – 14 November 2013: ''Rembrandt: The Consummate Etcher'', Syracuse University Art Galleries. * 19 May 2014 – 27 June 2014: ''From Rembrandt to Rosenquist: Works on Paper from the NAC's Permanent Collection'', National Arts Club. * 19 October 2014 – 4 January 2015: ''Rembrandt, Rubens, Gainsborough and the Golden Age of Painting in Europe'', Jule Collins Smith Museum of Art. * 15 October 2014 – 18 January 2015: ''Rembrandt: The Late Works'', The National Gallery, London. * 12 February 2015 – 17 May 2015: ''Late Rembrandt'', The Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. * 16 September 2018 – 6 January 2019: ''Rembrandt – Painter as Printmaker'', Denver Art Museum, Denver. * 24 Aug 2019 – 1 December 2019: ''Leiden circa 1630: Rembrandt Emerges'', Agnes Etherington Art Centre, Kingston, Ontario. * 4 October 2019 – 2 February 2020: ''Rembrandt's Light'', Dulwich Picture Gallery, London. * 18 February 2020 – 30 August 2020: ''Rembrandt and Amsterdam portraiture, 1590–1670 '', Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid. * 10 August 2020 – 1 November 2020: ''Young Rembrandt'', Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.


Paintings


Self-portraits

File:Self-portrait_(1628-1629),_by_Rembrandt.jpg, ''A young Rembrandt'', c. 1628, when he was 22. Partly an exercise in chiaroscuro.
Rijksmuseum The Rijksmuseum () is the national museum of the Netherlands dedicated to Dutch arts and history and is located in Amsterdam. The museum is located at the Museum Square in the borough of Amsterdam South, close to the Van Gogh Museum, the St ...
File:Rembrandt van Rijn 184.jpg, ''
Self-Portrait in a Gorget ''Self-Portrait in a Gorget'' is a c.1629 oil on panel self-portrait by Rembrandt, now in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum The Germanisches National Museum is a museum in Nuremberg, Germany. Founded in 1852, it houses a large collection of item ...
'', c. 1629; Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg File:Selfportrait_(Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn)_-_Nationalmuseum_-_22374.tif, ''Self-portrait'', 1630,
Nationalmuseum Nationalmuseum (or National Museum of Fine Arts) is the national gallery of Sweden, located on the peninsula Blasieholmen in central Stockholm. The museum's operations stretches far beyond the borders of Blasieholmen, the nationalmuseum manag ...
,
Stockholm Stockholm () is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in Sweden by population, largest city of Sweden as well as the List of urban areas in the Nordic countries, largest urban area in Scandinavia. Approximately 980,000 people liv ...
File:Rembrandt - Self-Portrait with Velvet Beret - Google Art Project.jpg, ''Self-Portrait with Velvet Beret and Furred Mantle'' 1634 File:Rembrandt1640.png, '' Self-portrait at the age of 34'', 1640, National Gallery, London File:Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn - Large Self-Portrait - Google Art Project.jpg, ''
Self-Portrait A self-portrait is a representation of an artist that is drawn, painted, photographed, or sculpted by that artist. Although self-portraits have been made since the earliest times, it is not until the Early Renaissance in the mid-15th century tha ...
'', oil on canvas, 1652.
Kunsthistorisches Museum The Kunsthistorisches Museum ( "Museum of Art History", often referred to as the "Museum of Fine Arts") is an art museum in Vienna, Austria. Housed in its festive palatial building on the Vienna Ring Road, it is crowned with an octagonal do ...
, Vienna File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 132.jpg, ''Self-portrait'', Vienna c. 1655, oil on walnut, cut down in size. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna File:Rembrant Self-Portrait, 1660.jpg, ''
Self-Portrait A self-portrait is a representation of an artist that is drawn, painted, photographed, or sculpted by that artist. Although self-portraits have been made since the earliest times, it is not until the Early Renaissance in the mid-15th century tha ...
'', 1660 File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 142.jpg, '' Self Portrait as Zeuxis'', c. 1662. One of 2 painted self-portraits in which Rembrandt is turned to the left.White, 200 Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne File:Rembrandt Self-portrait (Kenwood).jpg, ''
Self-Portrait with Two Circles ''Self-Portrait with Two Circles'' is an oil on canvas painting by the Dutch artist Rembrandt, painted c. 1665–1669, one of over 40 painted self-portraits by Rembrandt. In the portrait, Rembrandt holds his palette, brushes, and maulstick. T ...
'', c.1665–1669. Kenwood House, London File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 134.jpg, ''Self-portrait'', 1669. File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 135.jpg, '' Self-portrait at the age of 63'', dated 1669, the year he died. National Gallery, London


Other paintings

File:Rembrandt-Lapidation-Saint-Étienne-MBA-Lyon.jpg, ''
The Stoning of Saint Stephen ''The Stoning of Saint Stephen'' is the first signed painting by Dutch artist Rembrandt, made in 1625 at the age of 19. one of his earlier works is an oil painting on a wood panel and currently exhibited at the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon. Th ...
'', 1625, The first painting by Rembrandt, painted at the age of 19. It is currently kept in the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon. File:Rembrandt The Artist in his studio.jpg, ''Artist in His Studio'', 1628,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston The Museum of Fine Arts (often abbreviated as MFA Boston or MFA) is an art museum in Boston, Massachusetts. It is the 20th-largest art museum in the world, measured by public gallery area. It contains 8,161 paintings and more than 450,000 works ...
File:Rembrandt Buste van oude man met bontmuts. 1630.jpg, ''Bust of an old man with a fur hat'', the artist's father, 1630 File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn - Jeremia treurend over de verwoesting van Jeruzalem - Google Art Project.jpg, ''
Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem ''Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem'' is a 1630 painting by Rembrandt Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (, ; 15 July 1606 – 4 October 1669), usually simply known as Rembrandt, was a Dutch Golden Age painter, printmaker and ...
,'' c. 1630 File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 011.jpg, '' Andromeda'', Circa 1630 File:Rembrandt - The Philosopher in Meditation.jpg, ''The Philosopher in Meditation'', 1632 File:Rembrandt - The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp.jpg, ''
Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp ''The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp'' is a 1632 oil painting on canvas by Rembrandt housed in the Mauritshuis museum in The Hague, the Netherlands. The painting is regarded as one of Rembrandt's early masterpieces. In the work, Nicolaes Tu ...
'', 1632 File:Aeltje Uylenburgh, by Rembrandt.jpg, ''Portrait of Aeltje Uylenburgh'', 1632,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston The Museum of Fine Arts (often abbreviated as MFA Boston or MFA) is an art museum in Boston, Massachusetts. It is the 20th-largest art museum in the world, measured by public gallery area. It contains 8,161 paintings and more than 450,000 works ...
File:Rembrandt, Portrait of Saskia van Uylenburgh (1612–1642), circa 1633–1634, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Kassel.jpg, ''Portrait of Saskia van Uylenburgh'', c. 1633–1634 File:Rembrandt Abraham en Isaac, 1634.jpg, '' Sacrifice of Isaac'', 1635 File:The Blinding of Samson (SM 1383).png, '' The Blinding of Samson'', 1636, which Rembrandt gave to Huyghens File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 151.jpg, ''Susanna'', 1636 File:Rembrandt - Belshazzar's Feast - WGA19123.jpg, '' Belshassar's Feast'', 1636-1638 File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 026.jpg, ''
Danaë In Greek mythology, Danaë (, ; ; , ) was an Argive princess and mother of the hero Perseus by Zeus. She was credited with founding the city of Ardea in Latium during the Bronze Age. Family Danae was the daughter and only child of King Acris ...
'', 1636 - c. 1643, Hermitage Museum File:Rembrandt De aartsengel verlaat Tobias en zijn gezin. 1637.jpg, ''
The Archangel Raphael Leaving Tobias' Family ''The Archangel Raphael Leaving Tobias' Family'' is a 1637 oil-on-panel painting by Rembrandt, now in the Louvre, in Paris, France. See also * List of paintings by Rembrandt The following is a list of paintings by Rembrandt that are accepted as ...
'', 1637, Louvre File:Landscape with the Good Samaritan - Rembrandt.jpg, '' The Landscape with Good Samaritan'', 1638, Czartoryski Museum, Kraków File:Rembrandt Scholar at the Lectern.jpg, '' Scholar at his Writing Table'', 1641, Royal Castle, Warsaw File:Rembrandt van Rijn 195.jpg, '' Joseph's Dream'', c. 1645 File:Rembrandt - Susanna and the Elders - WGA19104.jpg, ''
Susanna and the Elders Susanna (; : "lily"), also called Susanna and the Elders, is a narrative included in the Book of Daniel (as chapter 13) by the Catholic Church, Oriental Orthodox Churches and Eastern Orthodox Churches. It is one of the additions to Daniel, plac ...
'', 1647 File:Rembrandt van Rijn - The Mill - Google Art Project.jpg, '' The Mill'', 1648 File:Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn - An Old Man in Red.JPG, ''An Old Man in Red'', 1652–1654 File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 013.jpg, ''
Aristotle with a Bust of Homer ''Aristotle with a Bust of Homer'' ( nl, Aristoteles bij de buste van Homerus), also known as ''Aristotle Contemplating a Bust of Homer'', is an oil-on-canvas painting by Rembrandt that depicts Aristotle wearing a gold chain and contemplating a ...
'', 1653, Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York File:The Kitchen Maid (Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn) - Nationalmuseum - 17587.tif, '' Young Girl at the Window'', 1654,
Nationalmuseum Nationalmuseum (or National Museum of Fine Arts) is the national gallery of Sweden, located on the peninsula Blasieholmen in central Stockholm. The museum's operations stretches far beyond the borders of Blasieholmen, the nationalmuseum manag ...
,
Stockholm Stockholm () is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in Sweden by population, largest city of Sweden as well as the List of urban areas in the Nordic countries, largest urban area in Scandinavia. Approximately 980,000 people liv ...
File:JanSix.jpg, '' Portrait of Jan Six'', a wealthy friend of Rembrandt, 1654 File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 016.jpg, '' Bathsheba at Her Bath'', modelled by Hendrickje, 1654 File:A Woman Bathing in a Stream by Rembrandt.jpg, ''
A Woman Bathing in a Stream ''Woman Bathing'' or ''A Woman Bathing in a Stream'' is a c.1654 painting by Rembrandt, now in the National Gallery, London, which acquired it in 1831. It was probably modelled on Rembrandt's partner Hendrickje Stoffels, and represents a woman in ...
'', modelled by Hendrickje, 1654 File:Pallas Athena by Rembrandt Museu Calouste Gulbenkian 1488.jpg, '' Pallas Athene'', c.1655 File:Dr Deijman’s Anatomy Lesson (fragment), by Rembrandt.jpg, '' The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman'', 1656 File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 062.jpg, '' Jacob Blessing the Sons of Joseph'', 1656 File:Rembrandt - Portrait of Hendrickje Stoffels - Google Art Project.jpg, ''Woman in a Doorway'', 1657–1658 File:Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn - Ahasuerus, Haman and Esther - Google Art Project.jpg, ''
Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther The painting ''Ahasveros and Haman at the Feast of Esther'' is one of the few works of Rembrandt van Rijn whose complete provenance is known. The origin of the painting can be traced back to 1662, two years after its completion. Subject The sub ...
'', 1660 File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn (Dutch - St. Bartholomew) - Google Art Project.jpg, ''Saint Bartholomew'', 1661, J. Paul Getty Museum File:Netherlands-4183 - The Syndics, Rembrandt.jpg, ''The
Syndics of the Drapers' Guild ''The Sampling Officials'' ( nl, De Staalmeesters), also called ''Syndics of the Drapers’ Guild'' ( nl, De waardijns van het Amsterdamse lakenbereidersgilde), is a 1662 oil painting by Rembrandt. It is currently owned by the Rijksmuseum in Ams ...
'', 1662 File:The Conspiracy of the Batavians under Claudius Civilis (Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn) - Nationalmuseum - 17581.tif, ''
The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis ''The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis'' ( nl, De samenzwering van de Bataven onder Claudius Civilis; sv, Batavernas trohetsed till Claudius Civilis) is an oil painting by the Dutch painter Rembrandt, c. 1661–62, which was originally the larges ...
'' (cut-down), 1661–62 File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn - Lucretia - 34.19 - Minneapolis Institute of Arts.jpg, '' Lucretia'', 1666 ( Minneapolis Institute of Art) File:Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn - Return of the Prodigal Son - Google Art Project.jpg, ''
The Return of the Prodigal Son The Parable of the Prodigal Son (also known as the parable of the Two Brothers, Lost Son, Loving Father, or of the Forgiving Father) is one of the parables of Jesus Christ in the Bible, appearing in Luke 15:11–32. Jesus shares the parable wit ...
'', detail, c. 1669 – Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg File:Koerperstrafe- MA Birkenrute.png, Medieval schoolboy birched on the bare buttocks File:Rembrandt - The Abduction of Ganymede - Google Art Project - cropped.jpg, frameless, upcenter, ,
The Abduction of Ganymede ''The Rape of Ganymede'' may refer to: * ''Ganymede Abducted by the Eagle ''Ganymede Abducted by the Eagle'' (c. 1531–1532) is a painting by the Italian late Renaissance artist Antonio da Correggio. It is housed in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, ...
, , 1635, , Oil on canvas, , 177 x 130, , Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, , 137, ,


Drawings and etchings

File:Rembrandt van Rijn - Zelfportret.jpg, ''Self-portrait'', c. 1628–29, pen and brush and ink on paper File:B320 Rembrandt.jpg, ''Self-portrait in a cap, with eyes wide open'', 1630, etching and burin File:Rembrandt Seated Old Man.jpg, ''Seated Old Man'' (c.1630), red and black chalk on paper,
Nationalmuseum, Stockholm Nationalmuseum (or National Museum of Fine Arts) is the national gallery of Sweden, located on the peninsula Blasieholmen in central Stockholm. The museum's operations stretches far beyond the borders of Blasieholmen, the nationalmuseum manage ...
File:Rembrandt Susanna Zeichnung.jpg, ''Suzannah and the Elders'', 1634, drawing in Sanguine on paper,
Kupferstichkabinett Berlin The Kupferstichkabinett, or Museum of Prints and Drawings, is a prints museum in Berlin, Germany. It is part of the Berlin State Museums, and is located in the Kulturforum on Potsdamer Platz. It is the largest museum of graphic art in Germany, ...
File:Self-portrait with Saskia.jpg, ''Self-portrait with Saskia'', 1636, etching,
Rijksmuseum The Rijksmuseum () is the national museum of the Netherlands dedicated to Dutch arts and history and is located in Amsterdam. The museum is located at the Museum Square in the borough of Amsterdam South, close to the Van Gogh Museum, the St ...
File:Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn - An Elephant, 1637 - Google Art Project.jpg, ''An elephant'', 1637, drawing in black chalk on paper, Albertina, Austria File:Self portrait leaning on si 373x470.jpg, ''Self-portrait leaning on a Sill'', 1639, etching,
National Gallery of Art The National Gallery of Art, and its attached Sculpture Garden, is a national art museum in Washington, D.C., United States, located on the National Mall, between 3rd and 9th Streets, at Constitution Avenue NW. Open to the public and free of char ...
File:Jesus und Ehebrecherin.jpg, ''Christ and the woman taken in adultery'', c. 1639–41, drawing in ink, Louvre File:Rembrandt Beggars I.jpg, ''Beggars I.'', c. 1640–42, ink on paper,
Warsaw University Library The University of Warsaw Library ( pl, Biblioteka Uniwersytecka w Warszawie, BUW) is a library of the University of Warsaw, Poland. History The library was founded in 1816 as a direct consequence of establishing The Royal Warsaw University. S ...
File:Rembrandt - The windmill - Google Art Project.jpg, ''The Windmill'', 1641, etching File:Rembrandt 254.jpg, ''The Diemerdijk at Houtewael'' (near Amsterdam), 1648–49, pen and brown ink, brown wash, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn - Christ Crucified Between the Two Thieves ("The Three Crosses") - Google Art Project.jpg, ''
The Three Crosses ''The Three Crosses'' is a 1653 print in etching and drypoint by the Dutch artist Rembrandt van Rijn, which depicts the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Most of his prints are mainly in etching and this one is a drypoint with burin adjustments fr ...
'', 1653, drypoint etching, state III of V,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston The Museum of Fine Arts (often abbreviated as MFA Boston or MFA) is an art museum in Boston, Massachusetts. It is the 20th-largest art museum in the world, measured by public gallery area. It contains 8,161 paintings and more than 450,000 works ...
File:Virgin and child with cat.jpg, ''
Virgin and Child with a Cat ''The Virgin and Child with a Cat'' is an etching made in 1654 by the Dutch artist Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669). The Victoria and Albert Museum has in its collection one of the earliest impressions of this etching and the actual copper plate ...
'', 1654, original copper etching plate above (the original copper plate), in Victoria and Albert Museum, example of the print below File:Rembrandt Christus aan het volk getoond.jpg, ''Christ presented to the People'', drypoint etching, 1655, state I of VIII,
Rijksmuseum The Rijksmuseum () is the national museum of the Netherlands dedicated to Dutch arts and history and is located in Amsterdam. The museum is located at the Museum Square in the borough of Amsterdam South, close to the Van Gogh Museum, the St ...
File:Rembrandt Two Jews in Discussion, Walking.jpg, ''Two Old Men in Conversation /Two Jews in Discussion, Walking'', year unknown, black chalk and brown ink on paper, Teylers Museum File:Rembrandt A Child Being Taught to Walk.jpg, A child being taught to walk (c. 1635). David Hockney said: "I think it's the greatest drawing ever done... It's a magnificent drawing, magnificent." File:Amsterdam - Late Rembrandt Exposition 2015 - Young Woman Sleeping 1654 B (cropped).jpg, ''A young woman sleeping'' (c. 1654). Shows Rembrandt's calligraphic-style draughtsmanship.


Notes


References


Works cited

* Ackley, Clifford, et al., ''Rembrandt's Journey'', Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 2004. * * Bomford, D. et al., Art in the making: Rembrandt, New edition, Yale University Press, 2006 * Bull, Duncan, et al., ''Rembrandt-Caravaggio'', Rijksmuseum, 2006. * Buvelot, Quentin, White, Christopher (eds), ''Rembrandt by himself'', 1999, National Gallery * * Clark, Kenneth, ''An Introduction to Rembrandt'', 1978, London, John Murray/Readers Union, 1978 * * Driessen, Christoph, ''Rembrandts vrouwen'', Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2012. * * Gombrich, E.H., ''The Story of Art'', Phaidon, 1995. * * ''The Complete Etchings of Rembrandt Reproduced in Original Size'', Gary Schwartz (editor). New York: Dover, 1988. * Slive, Seymour, Dutch Painting, 1600–1800, Yale UP, 1995, * van de Wetering, Ernst in ''Rembrandt by himself'', 1999 National Gallery, London/Mauritshuis, The Hague, * van de Wetering, Ernst, ''Rembrandt: The Painter at Work'', Amsterdam University Press, 2000. * White, Christopher, ''The Late Etchings of Rembrandt'', 1999, British Museum/Lund Humphries, London


Further reading

* Catalogue raisonné: Stichting Foundation Rembrandt Research Project: ** ''A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume I'', which deals with works from Rembrandt's early years in Leiden (1629–1631), 1982 ** ''A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume II: 1631–1634''. Bruyn, J., Haak, B. (et al.), Band 2, 1986, ** ''A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume III, 1635–1642''. Bruyn, J., Haak, B., Levie, S.H., van Thiel, P.J.J., van de Wetering, E. (Ed. Hrsg.), Band 3, 1990, ** ''A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume IV''.
Ernst van de Wetering Ernst van de Wetering (9 March 1938 – 11 August 2021) was a Dutch art historian and an expert on Rembrandt and his work. Background Ernst van de Wetering was born in Hengelo. He was first trained as an artist at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts ...
, Karin Groen et al. Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands. . p. 692. (Self-Portraits) * ''Rembrandt. Images and metaphors'', Christian and Astrid Tümpel (editors), Haus Books London 2006 *


External links


A biography of the artist Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn from the National Gallery, London

Works and literature on Rembrandt from Pubhist.com

The Drawings of Rembrandt: a revision of Otto Benesch's catalogue raisonné by Martin Royalton-Kisch (in progress)

Rembrandt's house in Amsterdam
Site of the Rembrandt House Museum in Amsterdam, with images of many of his etchings * *
Rembrandt van Rijn, General Resources

Gary Schwartz The transparent connoisseur 3: the 30 million pound question



The Rembrandt Database
research data on the paintings, including the full contents of the first volumes of ''A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings'' by the Rembrandt Research Project {{good article 1606 births 1669 deaths Art collectors from Amsterdam Artists from Leiden Dutch art dealers Dutch Christians Dutch draughtsmen Dutch etchers Dutch Golden Age painters Dutch Golden Age printmakers Dutch male painters Dutch portrait painters Dutch printmakers Engravers from Amsterdam Leiden University alumni Painters from Amsterdam People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar