Outline of natural science
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outline Outline or outlining may refer to: * Outline (list), a document summary, in hierarchical list format * Code folding, a method of hiding or collapsing code or text to see content in outline form * Outline drawing, a sketch depicting the outer edge ...
is provided as an overview of and topical guide to natural science:
Natural science Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatab ...
– a major branch of
science Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earliest archeological evidence for ...
that tries to explain, and predict, nature's phenomena based on
empirical evidence Empirical evidence for a proposition is evidence, i.e. what supports or counters this proposition, that is constituted by or accessible to sense experience or experimental procedure. Empirical evidence is of central importance to the sciences and ...
. In natural science,
hypothesis A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous obse ...
must be verified scientifically to be regarded as scientific theory. Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring quality control, such as peer review and repeatability of findings, are amongst the criteria and methods used for this purpose. Natural science can be broken into 2 main branches:
life science Life is a quality that distinguishes matter that has biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from that which does not, and is defined by the capacity for growth, reaction to stimuli, metabolism, energy t ...
, and
physical science Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together called the "physical sciences". Definition Physi ...
. Each of these branches, and all of their sub-branches, are referred to as natural sciences.


Overview

Natural science can be described as all of the following: * Branch of
science Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earliest archeological evidence for ...
– systematic enterprise that builds and organizes
knowledge Knowledge can be defined as awareness of facts or as practical skills, and may also refer to familiarity with objects or situations. Knowledge of facts, also called propositional knowledge, is often defined as true belief that is distinc ...
in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the
universe The universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy. The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological description of the development of the universe. Acc ...
."... modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by
mathematics Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions." —p.vii, J. L. Heilbron, (2003, editor-in-chief). ''The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science''. New York: Oxford University Press. .
* Major category of academic disciplines – an academic discipline is focused study in one academic field or profession. A discipline incorporates expertise, people, projects, communities, challenges, studies, inquiry, and research areas that are strongly associated with academic areas of study or areas of professional practice. For example, the branches of science are commonly referred to as the scientific disciplines. For instance, Gravitation is strongly associated with the discipline of physics, and is considered to be part of that disciplinary knowledge.


Branches of natural science


Physical science

*
Physical science Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together called the "physical sciences". Definition Physi ...
– branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to the biological sciences. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together called the "physical sciences". However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena (organic chemistry, for example).


Astronomy

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Astronomy Astronomy () is a natural science that studies astronomical object, celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and chronology of the Universe, evolution. Objects of interest ...
– studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation). ***
Astrobiology Astrobiology, and the related field of exobiology, is an interdisciplinary scientific field that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. Astrobiology is the multidisciplinary field that investig ...
– study of evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe—also known as
exobiology Astrobiology, and the related field of exobiology, is an interdisciplinary scientific field that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. Astrobiology is the multidisciplinary field that investig ...
, exopaleontology, and
bioastronomy Astrobiology, and the related field of exobiology, is an interdisciplinary scientific field that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. Astrobiology is the multidisciplinary field that investig ...
***
Astrodynamics Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated from Newton's laws of ...
– application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. ***
Astrophysics Astrophysics is a science that employs the methods and principles of physics and chemistry in the study of astronomical objects and phenomena. As one of the founders of the discipline said, Astrophysics "seeks to ascertain the nature of the h ...
– study of the physical aspects of celestial objects. ***
Astrometry Astrometry is a branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies. It provides the kinematics and physical origin of the Solar System and this galaxy, the Milky Way. His ...
– branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestially bodies. ***
Cosmology Cosmology () is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with the nature of the universe. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount (lexicographer), Thomas Blount's ''Glossographia'', and in 1731 taken up in ...
– discipline that deals with the nature of the Universe as a whole. ***
Extragalactic astronomy Extragalactic astronomy is the branch of astronomy concerned with objects outside the Milky Way galaxy. In other words, it is the study of all astronomical objects which are not covered by galactic astronomy. The closest objects in extragalactic ...
– branch of astronomy concerned with objects outside our own Milky Way Galaxy ***
Galactic astronomy Galactic astronomy is the study of the Milky Way galaxy and all its contents. This is in contrast to extragalactic astronomy, which is the study of everything outside our galaxy, including all other galaxies. Galactic astronomy should not be co ...
– study of our own Milky Way galaxy and all its contents. *** Physical cosmology – study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution. ***
Planetary science Planetary science (or more rarely, planetology) is the scientific study of planets (including Earth), celestial bodies (such as moons, asteroids, comets) and planetary systems (in particular those of the Solar System) and the processes of their f ...
– scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the Solar System and the processes that form them. ***
Stellar astronomy Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxies, ...
– natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as cosmic background radiation)


Physics

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Physics Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge which r ...
– physical science that studies matter and its motion through space-time, and related concepts such as energy and force ***
Acoustics Acoustics is a branch of physics that deals with the study of mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician ...
– study of mechanical waves in solids, liquids, and gases (such as vibration and sound) ***
Agrophysics Agrophysics is a branch of science bordering on agronomy and physics, whose objects of study are the agroecosystem - the biological objects, biotope and biocoenosis affected by human activity, studied and described using the methods of physical ...
– study of physics applied to agroecosystems ****
Soil physics Soil physics is the study of soil's physical properties and processes. It is applied to management and prediction under natural and managed ecosystems. Soil physics deals with the dynamics of physical soil components and their phases as solid ...
– study of soil physical properties and processes. *** Atmospheric physics – study of the application of physics to the atmosphere *** Atomic, molecular, and optical physics – study of how matter and light interact *** Biophysics – study of physical processes relating to biology ****
Medical physics Medical physics deals with the application of the concepts and methods of physics to the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of human diseases with a specific goal of improving human health and well-being. Since 2008, medical physics has been incl ...
– application of physics concepts, theories and methods to medicine. ****
Neurophysics Neurophysics (or neurobiophysics) is the branch of biophysics dealing with the development and use of physical methods to gain information about the nervous system. Neurophysics is an interdisciplinary science using physics and combining it with oth ...
– branch of biophysics dealing with the nervous system. *** Chemical physics – branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics. *** Computational physics – study and implementation of numerical algorithms to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists. ***
Condensed matter physics Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic and microscopic physical properties of matter, especially the solid and liquid phases which arise from electromagnetic forces between atoms. More generally, the sub ...
– study of the physical properties of condensed phases of matter. ***
Cryogenics In physics, cryogenics is the production and behaviour of materials at very low temperatures. The 13th IIR International Congress of Refrigeration (held in Washington DC in 1971) endorsed a universal definition of “cryogenics” and “cr ...
– cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperature (below −150 °C, −238 °F or 123K) and the behavior of materials at those temperatures. *** Dynamics – study of the causes of motion and changes in motion *** Econophysics – interdisciplinary research field, applying theories and methods originally developed by physicists in order to solve problems in economics ***
Electromagnetism In physics, electromagnetism is an interaction that occurs between particles with electric charge. It is the second-strongest of the four fundamental interactions, after the strong force, and it is the dominant force in the interactions of a ...
– branch of science concerned with the forces that occur between electrically charged particles. ***
Geophysics Geophysics () is a subject of natural science concerned with the physical processes and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis. The term ''geophysics'' som ...
– the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods *** Materials physics – use of physics to describe materials in many different ways such as force, heat, light and mechanics. ***
Mathematical physics Mathematical physics refers to the development of mathematics, mathematical methods for application to problems in physics. The ''Journal of Mathematical Physics'' defines the field as "the application of mathematics to problems in physics and t ...
– application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories. ***
Mechanics Mechanics (from Ancient Greek: μηχανική, ''mēkhanikḗ'', "of machines") is the area of mathematics and physics concerned with the relationships between force, matter, and motion among physical objects. Forces applied to objects r ...
– branch of physics concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment. **** Biomechanics – study of the structure and function of biological systems such as humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells by means of the methods of mechanics. ****
Classical mechanics Classical mechanics is a physical theory describing the motion of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to parts of machinery, and astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies. For objects governed by classical ...
– one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces. ****
Continuum mechanics Continuum mechanics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles. The French mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy was the first to formulate such m ...
– branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the kinematics and the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles. ****
Fluid mechanics Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of fluids ( liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the forces on them. It has applications in a wide range of disciplines, including mechanical, aerospace, civil, chemical and bio ...
– study of fluids and the forces on them. ****
Quantum mechanics Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that provides a description of the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. It is the foundation of all quantum physics including quantum chemistry, ...
– branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant. ****
Thermodynamics Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of the ...
– branch of physical science concerned with heat and its relation to other forms of energy and work. ***
Nuclear physics Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions, in addition to the study of other forms of nuclear matter. Nuclear physics should not be confused with atomic physics, which studies the ...
– field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. ***
Optics Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultraviole ...
– branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. ***
Particle physics Particle physics or high energy physics is the study of fundamental particles and forces that constitute matter and radiation. The fundamental particles in the universe are classified in the Standard Model as fermions (matter particles) an ...
– branch of physics that studies the existence and interactions of particles that are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter or radiation. ***
Psychophysics Psychophysics quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce. Psychophysics has been described as "the scientific study of the relation between stimulus and sensation" or, m ...
– quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect. *** Plasma physics – state of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized. ***
Polymer physics Polymer physics is the field of physics that studies polymers, their fluctuations, mechanical properties, as well as the kinetics of reactions involving degradation and polymerisation of polymers and monomers respectively.P. Flory, ''Principles of ...
– field of physics that studies polymers, their fluctuations, mechanical properties, as well as the kinetics of reactions involving degradation and polymerisation of polymers and monomers respectively. ***
Quantum physics Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that provides a description of the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. It is the foundation of all quantum physics including quantum chemistry, qua ...
– branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant. *** Relativity – branch of physics dealing with the mechanics of objects that approach the speed of light. ***
Statics Statics is the branch of classical mechanics that is concerned with the analysis of force and torque (also called moment) acting on physical systems that do not experience an acceleration (''a''=0), but rather, are in static equilibrium with ...
– branch of mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads (force, torque/moment) on physical systems in static equilibrium, that is, in a state where the relative positions of subsystems do not vary over time, or where components and structures are at a constant velocity. ***
Solid state physics Solid-state physics is the study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as quantum mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy. It is the largest branch of condensed matter physics. Solid-state physics studies how the l ...
– study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as quantum mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy. *** Vehicle dynamics – dynamics of vehicles, here assumed to be ground vehicles.


Chemistry

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Chemistry Chemistry is the science, scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a natural science that covers the Chemical element, elements that make up matter to the chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions ...
– physical science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate the chemical reactions *** Analytical chemistry – study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. *** Astrochemistry – study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. **** Cosmochemistry – study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions *** Atmospheric chemistry – branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines ***
Biochemistry Biochemistry or biological chemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology and ...
– study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes. **** Agrochemistry – study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and remediation. **** Bioinorganic chemistry – examines the role of metals in biology. ****
Bioorganic chemistry Bioorganic chemistry is a scientific discipline that combines organic chemistry and biochemistry. It is that branch of life science that deals with the study of biological processes using chemical methods. Protein and enzyme function are examples of ...
– rapidly growing scientific discipline that combines organic chemistry and biochemistry. ****
Biophysical chemistry Biophysical chemistry is a physical science that uses the concepts of physics and physical chemistry for the study of biological systems. The most common feature of the research in this subject is to seek explanation of the various phenomena in ...
– new branch of chemistry that covers a broad spectrum of research activities involving biological systems. ****
Environmental chemistry Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. It should not be confused with green chemistry, which seeks to reduce potential pollution at its source. It can be defined as t ...
– scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. **** Immunochemistry – branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components on the immune system. **** Medicinal chemistry – discipline at the intersection of chemistry, especially synthetic organic chemistry, and pharmacology and various other biological specialties, where they are involved with design, chemical synthesis and development for market of pharmaceutical agents (drugs). ****
Pharmacology Pharmacology is a branch of medicine, biology and pharmaceutical sciences concerned with drug or medication action, where a drug may be defined as any artificial, natural, or endogenous (from within the body) molecule which exerts a biochemica ...
– branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action. ****
Natural product chemistry Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. Although humans are p ...
– chemical compound or substance produced by a living organism – found in nature that usually has a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design. ****
Neurochemistry Neurochemistry is the study of chemicals, including neurotransmitters and other molecules such as psychopharmaceuticals and neuropeptides, that control and influence the physiology of the nervous system. This particular field within neuroscience e ...
– specific study of neurochemicals, which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function. ***
Computational chemistry Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulation to assist in solving chemical problems. It uses methods of theoretical chemistry, incorporated into computer programs, to calculate the structures and properties of m ...
– branch of chemistry that uses principles of computer science to assist in solving chemical problems. ****
Chemo-informatics Cheminformatics (also known as chemoinformatics) refers to use of physical chemistry theory with computer and information science techniques—so called "''in silico''" techniques—in application to a range of descriptive and prescriptive problem ...
– use of computer and informational techniques, applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry. **** Molecular mechanics – uses Newtonian mechanics to model molecular systems. *** Flavor chemistry – someone who uses chemistry to engineer artificial and natural flavors. *** Flow chemistry – chemical reaction is run in a continuously flowing stream rather than in batch production. ***
Geochemistry Geochemistry is the science that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms behind major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and its oceans. The realm of geochemistry extends beyond the Earth, encompassing the e ...
– study of the mechanisms behind major geological systems using chemistry ****
Aqueous geochemistry Aqueous geochemistry studies the role of various elements in natural waters, including copper, sulfur, and mercury. Researchers in this field also study how elemental fluxes are exchanged through interactions between the atmosphere, the earth or s ...
– study of the role of various elements in watersheds, including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how elemental fluxes are exchanged through atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions **** Isotope geochemistry – study of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes using chemistry and geology **** Ocean chemistry – studies the chemistry of marine environments including the influences of different variables. **** Organic geochemistry – study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on Earth **** Regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry – study of the spatial variation in the chemical composition of materials at the surface of the Earth ***
Inorganic chemistry Inorganic chemistry deals with synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This field covers chemical compounds that are not carbon-based, which are the subjects of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two disci ...
– branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds. ***
Nuclear chemistry Nuclear chemistry is the sub-field of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes, and transformations in the nuclei of atoms, such as nuclear transmutation and nuclear properties. It is the chemistry of radioactive elements such as t ...
– subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties. ****
Radiochemistry Radiochemistry is the chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to ...
– chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being inactive as the isotopes are stable). ***
Organic chemistry Organic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, and reactions of organic compounds and organic materials, i.e., matter in its various forms that contain carbon atoms.Clayden, J.; ...
– study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives. ****
Petrochemistry Petrochemicals (sometimes abbreviated as petchems) are the chemical products obtained from petroleum by refining. Some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained from other fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas, or renewable sou ...
– branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. ***
Organometallic chemistry Organometallic chemistry is the study of organometallic compounds, chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal, including alkali, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and so ...
– study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal. ***
Photochemistry Photochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the chemical effects of light. Generally, this term is used to describe a chemical reaction caused by absorption of ultraviolet (wavelength from 100 to 400  nm), visible light (400–7 ...
– study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules.. ***
Physical chemistry Physical chemistry is the study of macroscopic and microscopic phenomena in chemical systems in terms of the principles, practices, and concepts of physics such as motion, energy, force, time, thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mecha ...
– study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts. ****
Chemical kinetics Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, is the branch of physical chemistry that is concerned with understanding the rates of chemical reactions. It is to be contrasted with chemical thermodynamics, which deals with the direction in wh ...
– the study of rates of chemical processes. **** Chemical thermodynamics – study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. ****
Electrochemistry Electrochemistry is the branch of physical chemistry concerned with the relationship between electrical potential difference, as a measurable and quantitative phenomenon, and identifiable chemical change, with the potential difference as an outco ...
– branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution. ****
Femtochemistry Femtochemistry is the area of physical chemistry that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales (approximately 10−15 seconds or one femtosecond, hence the name) in order to study the very act of atoms within molecules (reactants ...
– Femtochemistry is the science that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond, hence the name). ****
Mathematical chemistry Mathematical chemistry is the area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. Mathematical chemistry has also sometimes been called com ...
– area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. **** Mechanochemistry – coupling of the mechanical and the chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and includes mechanical breakage, chemical behaviour of mechanically stressed solids (e.g., stress-corrosion cracking), tribology, polymer degradation under shear, cavitation-related phenomena (e.g., sonochemistry and sonoluminescence), shock wave chemistry and physics, and even the burgeoning field of
molecular machine A molecular machine, nanite, or nanomachine is a molecular component that produces quasi-mechanical movements (output) in response to specific stimuli (input). In cellular biology, macromolecular machines frequently perform tasks essential for l ...
s. **** Physical organic chemistry – study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules. ****
Quantum chemistry Quantum chemistry, also called molecular quantum mechanics, is a branch of physical chemistry focused on the application of quantum mechanics to chemical systems, particularly towards the quantum-mechanical calculation of electronic contributions ...
– branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems. ****
Sonochemistry In chemistry, the study of sonochemistry is concerned with understanding the effect of ultrasound in forming acoustic cavitation in liquids, resulting in the initiation or enhancement of the chemical activity in the solution. Therefore, the chemical ...
– study of the effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems. ****
Stereochemistry Stereochemistry, a subdiscipline of chemistry, involves the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules and their manipulation. The study of stereochemistry focuses on the relationships between stereois ...
– study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules. **** Supramolecular chemistry – area of chemistry beyond the molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. **** Thermochemistry – study of the energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. ***
Phytochemistry Phytochemistry is the study of phytochemicals, which are chemicals derived from plants. Phytochemists strive to describe the structures of the large number of secondary metabolites found in plants, the functions of these compounds in human and ...
– strict sense of the word the study of phytochemicals. ***
Polymer chemistry Polymer chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that focuses on the structures of chemicals, chemical synthesis, and chemical and physical properties of polymers and macromolecules. The principles and methods used within polymer chemistry are ...
– multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. *** Solid-state chemistry – study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids *** Multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry ****
Chemical biology Chemical biology is a scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology. The discipline involves the application of chemical techniques, analysis, and often small molecules produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and ma ...
– scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology that involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems. ****
Chemical engineering Chemical engineering is an engineering field which deals with the study of operation and design of chemical plants as well as methods of improving production. Chemical engineers develop economical commercial processes to convert raw materials int ...
– branch of engineering that deals with physical science (e.g., chemistry and physics), and life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) with mathematics and economics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms. **** Chemical oceanography – study of the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth's oceans. **** Chemical physics – branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics. **** Materials science – interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering. ****
Nanotechnology Nanotechnology, also shortened to nanotech, is the use of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale for industrial purposes. The earliest, widespread description of nanotechnology referred to the particular technological goal o ...
– study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale ****
Oenology Oenology (also enology; ) is the science and study of wine and winemaking. Oenology is distinct from viticulture, which is the science of the growing, cultivation, and harvesting of grapes. The English word oenology derives from the Greek word ' ...
– science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture. ****
Spectroscopy Spectroscopy is the field of study that measures and interprets the electromagnetic spectra that result from the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter as a function of the wavelength or frequency of the radiation. Matter wa ...
– study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy ****
Surface science Surface science is the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces. It includes the fiel ...
– Surface science is the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces.


Earth Science

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Earth science Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to the planet Earth. This is a branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four spheres ...
– all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. Earth science, and all of its branches, are branches of physical science. ***
Atmospheric sciences Atmospheric science is the study of the Earth's atmosphere and its various inner-working physical processes. Meteorology includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics with a major focus on weather forecasting. Climatology is the study of ...
– umbrella term for the study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. ***
Biogeography Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, ...
– study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. ***
Cartography Cartography (; from grc, χάρτης , "papyrus, sheet of paper, map"; and , "write") is the study and practice of making and using maps. Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality (or an im ...
– study and practice of making maps or globes. ***
Climatology Climatology (from Greek , ''klima'', "place, zone"; and , '' -logia'') or climate science is the scientific study of Earth's climate, typically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of at least 30 years. This modern field of stud ...
– study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time ***
Coastal geography Coastal geography is the study of the constantly changing region between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, climatology and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) ...
– study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. ***
Environmental science Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physics, biology, and geography (including ecology, chemistry, plant science, zoology, mineralogy, oceanography, limnology, soil science, geology and physical geograp ...
– an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. ****
Ecology Ecology () is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere level. Ecology overlaps wi ...
– scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. ***** Freshwater biology – scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems and is a branch of Limnology *****
Marine biology Marine biology is the scientific study of the biology of marine life, organisms in the sea. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies s ...
– scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water *****
Parasitology Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question but by their way of life. This means it fo ...
– Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. *****
Population dynamics Population dynamics is the type of mathematics used to model and study the size and age composition of populations as dynamical systems. History Population dynamics has traditionally been the dominant branch of mathematical biology, which has ...
– Population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of populations, and the biological and environmental processes influencing those changes. ****
Environmental chemistry Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. It should not be confused with green chemistry, which seeks to reduce potential pollution at its source. It can be defined as t ...
– Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. **** Environmental soil science – Environmental soil science is the study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere. **** Environmental geology – Environmental geology, like hydrogeology, is an applied science concerned with the practical application of the principles of geology in the solving of environmental problems. ****
Toxicology Toxicology is a scientific discipline, overlapping with biology, chemistry, pharmacology, and medicine, that involves the study of the adverse effects of chemical substances on living organisms and the practice of diagnosing and treating expo ...
– branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms. ****
Geodesy Geodesy ( ) is the Earth science of accurately measuring and understanding Earth's figure (geometric shape and size), orientation in space, and gravity. The field also incorporates studies of how these properties change over time and equivale ...
– scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space ***
Geography Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth description") is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and ...
– science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth *** Geoinformatics – science and the technology which develops and uses information science infrastructure to address the problems of geography, geosciences and related branches of engineering. ***
Geology Geology () is a branch of natural science concerned with Earth and other astronomical objects, the features or rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Ear ...
– study of the Earth, with the general exclusion of present-day life, flow within the ocean, and the atmosphere. ****
Planetary geology Planetary geology, alternatively known as astrogeology or exogeology, is a planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. Although the ...
– planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. ***
Geomorphology Geomorphology (from Ancient Greek: , ', "earth"; , ', "form"; and , ', "study") is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or n ...
– scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them ***
Geostatistics Geostatistics is a branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets. Developed originally to predict probability distributions of ore grades for mining operations, it is currently applied in diverse disciplines including petro ...
– branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets ***
Geophysics Geophysics () is a subject of natural science concerned with the physical processes and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis. The term ''geophysics'' som ...
– physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods. ***
Glaciology Glaciology (; ) is the scientific study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice. Glaciology is an interdisciplinary Earth science that integrates geophysics, geology, physical geography, geomorphology, climato ...
– study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice. ***
Hydrology Hydrology () is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources, and environmental watershed sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is calle ...
– study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability. ***
Hydrogeology Hydrogeology (''hydro-'' meaning water, and ''-geology'' meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquif ...
– area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers). ***
Mineralogy Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. Specific studies within mineralogy include the proces ...
– study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals. ***
Meteorology Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences (which include atmospheric chemistry and physics) with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not ...
– interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere which explains and forecasts weather events. ***
Oceanography Oceanography (), also known as oceanology and ocean science, is the scientific study of the oceans. It is an Earth science, which covers a wide range of topics, including ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamic ...
– branch of Earth science that studies the ocean ***
Paleoclimatology Paleoclimatology (British spelling, palaeoclimatology) is the study of climates for which direct measurements were not taken. As instrumental records only span a tiny part of Earth's history, the reconstruction of ancient climate is important to ...
– study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth ***
Paleontology Paleontology (), also spelled palaeontology or palæontology, is the scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the Holocene epoch (roughly 11,700 years before present). It includes the study of fossi ...
– study of prehistoric life ***
Petrology Petrology () is the branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous and metamorphic petrology are commonly taught together ...
– branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks. ***
Limnology Limnology ( ; from Greek λίμνη, ''limne'', "lake" and λόγος, ''logos'', "knowledge") is the study of inland aquatic ecosystems. The study of limnology includes aspects of the biological, chemical, physical, and geological characteristi ...
– study of inland waters ***
Seismology Seismology (; from Ancient Greek σεισμός (''seismós'') meaning "earthquake" and -λογία (''-logía'') meaning "study of") is the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other ...
– scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies ***
Soil science Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the Earth including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to th ...
– study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils. ***
Topography Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area may refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps. Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary sci ...
– study of surface shape and features of the Earth and other observable astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids. ***
Volcanology Volcanology (also spelled vulcanology) is the study of volcanoes, lava, magma and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena (volcanism). The term ''volcanology'' is derived from the Latin word ''vulcan''. Vulcan was the anci ...
– study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena.


Life Science


Biology

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Biology Biology is the scientific study of life. It is a natural science with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all organisms are made up of cells that process hereditary i ...
– study of living organisms. **
Aerobiology Aerobiology (from Greek ἀήρ, ''aēr'', "air"; βίος, ''bios'', "life"; and -λογία, ''-logia'') is a branch of biology that studies organic particles, such as bacteria, fungal spores, very small insects, pollen grains and viruses, ...
– study of airborne organic particles **
Agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to ...
– study of producing crops from the land, with an emphasis on practical applications **
Anatomy Anatomy () is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its ...
– study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or specifically in humans ***
Human anatomy The human body is the structure of a human being. It is composed of many different types of cells that together create tissues and subsequently organ systems. They ensure homeostasis and the viability of the human body. It comprises a he ...
– scientific study of the morphology of the adult human. **
Biochemistry Biochemistry or biological chemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology and ...
– study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level **
Bioengineering Biological engineering or bioengineering is the application of principles of biology and the tools of engineering to create usable, tangible, economically-viable products. Biological engineering employs knowledge and expertise from a number o ...
– study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology **
Biogeography Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, ...
– study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally **
Bioinformatics Bioinformatics () is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data, in particular when the data sets are large and complex. As an interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combi ...
– use of information technology and statistics for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and other biological data ** Biomathematics or Mathematical Biology – quantitative or mathematical study of biological processes, with an emphasis on modeling ** Biomechanics – often considered a branch of medicine, the study of the mechanics of living beings, with an emphasis on applied use through prosthetics or
orthotics Orthotics ( el, Ορθός, translit=ortho, lit=to straighten, to align) is a medical specialty that focuses on the design and application of orthoses, or braces. An is "an externally applied device used to influence the structural and functio ...
**
Biomedical research Medical research (or biomedical research), also known as experimental medicine, encompasses a wide array of research, extending from "basic research" (also called ''bench science'' or ''bench research''), – involving fundamental scientif ...
– study of the human body in health and disease ** Biophysics – study of biological processes through physics, by applying the theories and methods traditionally used in the physical sciences **
Biotechnology Biotechnology is the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms, cells, parts thereof and molecular analogues for products and services. The term ''biotechnology'' was first used b ...
– new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology **
Botany Botany, also called , plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek w ...
– study of plants **
Cell biology Cell biology (also cellular biology or cytology) is a branch of biology that studies the structure, function, and behavior of cells. All living organisms are made of cells. A cell is the basic unit of life that is responsible for the living and ...
– study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell **
Conservation Biology Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions. It is an int ...
– study of the preservation, protection, or restoration of the natural environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife **
Chronobiology Chronobiology is a field of biology that examines timing processes, including periodic (cyclic) phenomena in living organisms, such as their adaptation to solar- and lunar-related rhythms. These cycles are known as biological rhythms. Chronobi ...
– field of biology that examines periodic (cyclic) phenomena in living organisms and their adaptation to solar- and lunar-related rhythms. **
Cryobiology Cryobiology is the branch of biology that studies the effects of low temperatures on living things within Earth's cryosphere or in science. The word cryobiology is derived from the Greek words κρῧος ryos "cold", βίος ios "life", and λό ...
– study of the effects of lower than normally preferred temperatures on living beings. **
Developmental biology Developmental biology is the study of the process by which animals and plants grow and develop. Developmental biology also encompasses the biology of Regeneration (biology), regeneration, asexual reproduction, metamorphosis, and the growth and di ...
– study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure ***
Embryology Embryology (from Greek ἔμβρυον, ''embryon'', "the unborn, embryo"; and -λογία, '' -logia'') is the branch of animal biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes (sex cells), fertilization, and development of embryos and ...
– study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to birth). See also topobiology. ***
Gerontology Gerontology ( ) is the study of the social, cultural, psychological, cognitive, and biological aspects of aging. The word was coined by Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov in 1903, from the Greek , ''geron'', "old man" and , ''-logia'', "study of". The fie ...
– study of aging processes. **
Ecology Ecology () is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere level. Ecology overlaps wi ...
– study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment ** Environmental Biology – study of the natural world, as a whole or in a particular area, especially as affected by human activity **
Epidemiology Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where), patterns and determinants of health and disease conditions in a defined population. It is a cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidenc ...
– major component of public health research, studying factors affecting the health of populations **
Evolution Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes, which are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. Variation ...
– any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations. ***
Evolutionary Biology Evolutionary biology is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes (natural selection, common descent, speciation) that produced the diversity of life on Earth. It is also defined as the study of the history of life fo ...
– study of the origin and descent of species over time ****
Evolutionary developmental biology Evolutionary developmental biology (informally, evo-devo) is a field of biological research that compares the developmental processes of different organisms to infer how developmental processes evolved. The field grew from 19th-century beginni ...
– field of biology that compares the developmental processes of different organisms to determine the ancestral relationship between them, and to discover how developmental processes evolved. *** Paleobiology – discipline which combines the methods and findings of the natural science biology with the methods and findings of the earth science paleontology. ****
Paleontology Paleontology (), also spelled palaeontology or palæontology, is the scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the Holocene epoch (roughly 11,700 years before present). It includes the study of fossi ...
– study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life **
Genetics Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms.Hartl D, Jones E (2005) It is an important branch in biology because heredity is vital to organisms' evolution. Gregor Mendel, a Moravian Augustinian friar wor ...
– study of genes and heredity ***
Genomics Genomics is an interdisciplinary field of biology focusing on the structure, function, evolution, mapping, and editing of genomes. A genome is an organism's complete set of DNA, including all of its genes as well as its hierarchical, three-dim ...
– discipline in genetics concerned with the study of the genomes of organisms. ***
Proteomics Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins. Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, with many functions such as the formation of structural fibers of muscle tissue, enzymatic digestion of food, or synthesis and replication of DNA. In ...
– large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions ***
Population genetics Population genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between populations, and is a part of evolutionary biology. Studies in this branch of biology examine such phenomena as adaptation, speciation, and pop ...
– study of changes in gene frequencies in **
Histology Histology, also known as microscopic anatomy or microanatomy, is the branch of biology which studies the microscopic anatomy of biological tissues. Histology is the microscopic counterpart to gross anatomy, which looks at larger structures vis ...
– study of cells and tissues, a microscopic branch of anatomy ** Integrative biology – study of whole organisms **
Limnology Limnology ( ; from Greek λίμνη, ''limne'', "lake" and λόγος, ''logos'', "knowledge") is the study of inland aquatic ecosystems. The study of limnology includes aspects of the biological, chemical, physical, and geological characteristi ...
– study of inland waters **
Marine Biology Marine biology is the scientific study of the biology of marine life, organisms in the sea. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies s ...
– study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other living beings **
Microbiology Microbiology () is the scientific study of microorganisms, those being unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, bacteriology, prot ...
– study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other living things *** Bacteriology – study of bacteria. ***
Virology Virology is the Scientific method, scientific study of biological viruses. It is a subfield of microbiology that focuses on their detection, structure, classification and evolution, their methods of infection and exploitation of host (biology), ...
– study of viruses and some other virus-like agents **
Molecular Biology Molecular biology is the branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells, including biomolecular synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions. The study of chemical and physi ...
– study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, some cross over with biochemistry *** Structural biology – branch of
molecular biology Molecular biology is the branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells, including biomolecular synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions. The study of chemical and physi ...
,
biochemistry Biochemistry or biological chemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology and ...
, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules **
Morphology Morphology, from the Greek and meaning "study of shape", may refer to: Disciplines *Morphology (archaeology), study of the shapes or forms of artifacts *Morphology (astronomy), study of the shape of astronomical objects such as nebulae, galaxies, ...
– In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features. **
Mycology Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans, including as a source for tinder, traditional medicine, food, and entheogens, as ...
– study of fungi **
Oceanography Oceanography (), also known as oceanology and ocean science, is the scientific study of the oceans. It is an Earth science, which covers a wide range of topics, including ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamic ...
– study of the ocean, including ocean life, environment, geography, weather, and other aspects influencing the ocean **
Oncology Oncology is a branch of medicine that deals with the study, treatment, diagnosis and prevention of cancer. A medical professional who practices oncology is an ''oncologist''. The name's etymological origin is the Greek word ὄγκος (''ó ...
– study of cancer processes, including virus or
mutation In biology, a mutation is an alteration in the nucleic acid sequence of the genome of an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA. Viral genomes contain either DNA or RNA. Mutations result from errors during DNA or viral replication, mi ...
oncogenesis Carcinogenesis, also called oncogenesis or tumorigenesis, is the formation of a cancer, whereby normal cells are transformed into cancer cells. The process is characterized by changes at the cellular, genetic, and epigenetic levels and abnor ...
,
angiogenesis Angiogenesis is the physiological process through which new blood vessels form from pre-existing vessels, formed in the earlier stage of vasculogenesis. Angiogenesis continues the growth of the vasculature by processes of sprouting and splitting ...
and tissues remoldings **
Population biology The term population biology has been used with different meanings. In 1971 Edward O. Wilson ''et al''. used the term in the sense of applying mathematical models to population genetics, community ecology, and population dynamics. Alan Hastings us ...
– study of groups of conspecific organisms, including *** Population ecology – study of how population dynamics and extinction ***
Population genetics Population genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between populations, and is a part of evolutionary biology. Studies in this branch of biology examine such phenomena as adaptation, speciation, and pop ...
– study of changes in gene frequencies in populations of organisms ** Pathobiology or pathology – study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and development of disease **
Parasitology Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question but by their way of life. This means it fo ...
– study of parasites and parasitism **
Pharmacology Pharmacology is a branch of medicine, biology and pharmaceutical sciences concerned with drug or medication action, where a drug may be defined as any artificial, natural, or endogenous (from within the body) molecule which exerts a biochemica ...
– study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs and synthetic medicines **
Physiology Physiology (; ) is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system. As a sub-discipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical ...
– study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of living organisms ***
Immunology Immunology is a branch of medicineImmunology for Medical Students, Roderick Nairn, Matthew Helbert, Mosby, 2007 and biology that covers the medical study of immune systems in humans, animals, plants and sapient species. In such we can see there ...
– Immunology is the study of all aspects of the
immune system The immune system is a network of biological processes that protects an organism from diseases. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as cancer cells and objects such as wood splinte ...
in all organisms ***
Kinesiology Kinesiology () is the scientific study of human body movement. Kinesiology addresses physiological, anatomical, biomechanical, pathological, neuropsychological principles and mechanisms of movement. Applications of kinesiology to human health ...
– Kinesiology, also known as human kinetics, is the scientific study of human movement *** Neurobiology – study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology and pathology ****
Neuroscience Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system (the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system), its functions and disorders. It is a multidisciplinary science that combines physiology, anatomy, molecular biology, development ...
– interdisciplinary science that studies the nervous system ***
Histology Histology, also known as microscopic anatomy or microanatomy, is the branch of biology which studies the microscopic anatomy of biological tissues. Histology is the microscopic counterpart to gross anatomy, which looks at larger structures vis ...
– **
Phytopathology Plant pathology (also phytopathology) is the scientific study of diseases in plants caused by pathogens (infectious organisms) and environmental conditions (physiological factors). Organisms that cause infectious disease include fungi, oomyc ...
– study of plant diseases (also called Plant Pathology) ** Psychobiology – study of the biological bases of
psychology Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries betwe ...
** Sociobiology – study of the biological bases of sociology **
Systematics Biological systematics is the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time. Relationships are visualized as evolutionary trees (synonyms: cladograms, phylogenetic tre ...
– study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time ***
Cladistics Cladistics (; ) is an approach to biological classification in which organisms are categorized in groups (" clades") based on hypotheses of most recent common ancestry. The evidence for hypothesized relationships is typically shared derived char ...
– method of classifying species of organisms into groups called clades, which consist of an ancestor organism and all its descendants (and nothing else) ***
Phylogeny A phylogenetic tree (also phylogeny or evolutionary tree Felsenstein J. (2004). ''Inferring Phylogenies'' Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, MA.) is a branching diagram or a tree showing the evolutionary relationships among various biological spec ...
– study of evolutionary relation among groups of organisms (e.g. species, populations), which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices ***
Taxonomy Taxonomy is the practice and science of categorization or classification. A taxonomy (or taxonomical classification) is a scheme of classification, especially a hierarchical classification, in which things are organized into groups or types. ...
– science of identifying and naming species, and arranging them into a classification. **
Zoology Zoology ()The pronunciation of zoology as is usually regarded as nonstandard, though it is not uncommon. is the branch of biology that studies the Animal, animal kingdom, including the anatomy, structure, embryology, evolution, Biological clas ...
– study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and behavior ***
Arachnology Arachnology is the scientific study of arachnids, which comprise spiders and related invertebrates such as scorpions, pseudoscorpions, and harvestmen. Those who study spiders and other arachnids are arachnologists. More narrowly, the study of sp ...
– scientific study of spiders and related animals such as scorpions, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, collectively called arachnids. **** Acarology – study of the taxon of arachnids that contains mites and ticks ***
Entomology Entomology () is the science, scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. In the past the term "insect" was less specific, and historically the definition of entomology would also include the study of animals in other arthropod groups, such ...
– study of insects ****
Myrmecology Myrmecology (; from Greek: μύρμηξ, ''myrmex'', "ant" and λόγος, ''logos'', "study") is a branch of entomology focusing on the scientific study of ants. Some early myrmecologists considered ant society as the ideal form of society and ...
– scientific study of ants, a branch of entomology **** Coleopterology – study of beetles **** Lepidopterology – study of a large order of insects that includes moths and butterflies (called lepidopterans) ***
Ethology Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Behaviourism as a term also describes the scientific and objectiv ...
– study of animal behavior *** Helminthology – study of worms, especially parasitic worms ***
Herpetology Herpetology (from Greek ἑρπετόν ''herpetón'', meaning "reptile" or "creeping animal") is the branch of zoology concerned with the study of amphibians (including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and caecilians (gymnophiona)) and rept ...
– study of reptiles and amphibians ***
Ichthyology Ichthyology is the branch of zoology devoted to the study of fish, including bony fish ( Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fish (Agnatha). According to FishBase, 33,400 species of fish had been described as of Octob ...
– study of fish ***
Malacology Malacology is the branch of invertebrate zoology that deals with the study of the Mollusca (mollusks or molluscs), the second-largest phylum of animals in terms of described species after the arthropods. Mollusks include snails and slugs, clams, ...
– branch of invertebrate zoology which deals with the study of the Mollusca (mollusks or molluscs), the second-largest phylum of animals in terms of described species after the arthropods. ***
Mammalogy In zoology, mammalogy is the study of mammals – a class of vertebrates with characteristics such as homeothermic metabolism, fur, four-chambered hearts, and complex nervous system In biology, the nervous system is the highly complex part o ...
– study of mammals **** Cetology – branch of marine mammal science that studies the approximately eighty species of whales, dolphins, and porpoise in the scientific order Cetacea. ****
Physical anthropology Biological anthropology, also known as physical anthropology, is a scientific discipline concerned with the biological and behavioral aspects of human beings, their extinct Hominini, hominin ancestors, and related non-human primates, particularly ...
– studies the physical development of the human species. *** Nematology – scientific discipline concerned with the study of nematodes, or roundworms ***
Ornithology Ornithology is a branch of zoology that concerns the "methodological study and consequent knowledge of birds with all that relates to them." Several aspects of ornithology differ from related disciplines, due partly to the high visibility and th ...
– study of birds


History of natural science

History of natural science *
Natural philosophy Natural philosophy or philosophy of nature (from Latin ''philosophia naturalis'') is the philosophical study of physics Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior throu ...


History of the branches of natural science

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History of physical science Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies abiotic component, non-living systems, in contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together called the "physical sciences". ...
– history of the branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to the biological sciences. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together called the "physical sciences". However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena (organic chemistry, for example). ** History of physics – history of the physical science that studies matter and its motion through space-time, and related concepts such as energy and force ***
History of acoustics Acoustics is a branch of physics that deals with the study of mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician ...
– history of the study of mechanical waves in solids, liquids, and gases (such as vibration and sound) *** History of agrophysics – history of the study of physics applied to agroecosystems **** History of soil physics – history of the study of soil physical properties and processes. ***
History of astrophysics Astrophysics is a science that employs the methods and principles of physics and chemistry in the study of astronomical objects and phenomena. As one of the founders of the discipline said, Astrophysics "seeks to ascertain the nature of the h ...
– history of the study of the physical aspects of celestial objects ***
History of astronomy Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, mythological, cosmological, calendrical, and astrological beliefs and practices of prehistory: vestiges of these are still found in ...
– history of the studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation). ****
History of astrodynamics Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated from Newton's laws of ...
– history of the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. ****
History of astrometry Astrometry is a branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies. It provides the kinematics and physical origin of the Solar System and this galaxy, the Milky Way. His ...
– history of the branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies. **** History of cosmology – history of the discipline that deals with the nature of the Universe as a whole. **** History of extragalactic astronomy – history of the branch of astronomy concerned with objects outside our own Milky Way Galaxy **** History of galactic astronomy – history of the study of our own Milky Way galaxy and all its contents. ****
History of physical cosmology Physical cosmology is a branch of cosmology concerned with the study of cosmological models. A cosmological model, or simply cosmology, provides a description of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and allows study of f ...
– history of the study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution. ****
History of planetary science Planetary science (or more rarely, planetology) is the scientific study of planets (including Earth), celestial bodies (such as moons, asteroids, comets) and planetary systems (in particular those of the Solar System) and the processes of their fo ...
– history of the scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the Solar System and the processes that form them. **** History of stellar astronomy – history of the natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as cosmic background radiation) *** History of atmospheric physics – history of the study of the application of physics to the atmosphere ***
History of atomic, molecular, and optical physics History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the History of writing#Inventions of writing, invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbr ...
– history of the study of how matter and light interact ***
History of biophysics History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the study of physical processes relating to biology **** History of medical physics – history of the application of physics concepts, theories and methods to medicine. **** History of neurophysics – history of the branch of biophysics dealing with the nervous system. *** History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics. *** History of computational physics – history of the study and implementation of numerical algorithms to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists. ***
History of condensed matter physics Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic and microscopic physical properties of matter, especially the solid and liquid phases which arise from electromagnetic forces between atoms. More generally, the su ...
– history of the study of the physical properties of condensed phases of matter. *** History of cryogenics – history of the cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperature (below −150 °C, −238 °F or 123K) and the behavior of materials at those temperatures. *** History of dynamics – history of the study of the causes of motion and changes in motion ***
History of econophysics Econophysics is a Heterodox economics, heterodox interdisciplinary research field, applying theories and methods originally developed by physicists in order to solve problems in economics, usually those including uncertainty or stochastic processes ...
– history of the interdisciplinary research field, applying theories and methods originally developed by physicists in order to solve problems in economics ***
History of electromagnetism The history of electromagnetic theory begins with ancient measures to understand atmospheric electricity, in particular lightning. People then had little understanding of electricity, and were unable to explain the phenomena. Scientific understan ...
– history of the branch of science concerned with the forces that occur between electrically charged particles. ***
History of geophysics The historical development of geophysics has been motivated by two factors. One of these is the research curiosity of humankind related to planet Earth and its several components, its events and its problems. The second is economical usage of Earth' ...
– history of the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods *** History of materials physics – history of the use of physics to describe materials in many different ways such as force, heat, light and mechanics. *** History of mathematical physics – history of the application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories. ***
History of mechanics Mechanics (from Ancient Greek: μηχανική, ''mēkhanikḗ'', "of machines") is the area of mathematics and physics concerned with the relationships between force, matter, and motion among physical objects. Forces applied to objects ...
– history of the branch of physics concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment. ****
History of biomechanics Biomechanics is the study of the structure, function and motion of the mechanical aspects of biological systems, at any level from whole organisms to organs, cells and cell organelles, using the methods of mechanics. Biomechanics is a branch of b ...
– history of the study of the structure and function of biological systems such as humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells by means of the methods of mechanics. **** History of classical mechanics – history of the one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces. **** History of continuum mechanics – history of the branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the kinematics and the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles. ****
History of fluid mechanics The study of fluid mechanics, a branch of physics that studies the movement of fluids and the forces that act upon them, dates back to pre-history. The Ancient Greeks developed many of the basics of the field, while most concepts and theories use ...
– history of the study of fluids and the forces on them. **** History of quantum mechanics – history of the branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant. ****
History of thermodynamics The history of thermodynamics is a fundamental strand in the history of physics, the history of chemistry, and the history of science in general. Owing to the relevance of thermodynamics in much of science and technology, its history is finely wo ...
– history of the branch of physical science concerned with heat and its relation to other forms of energy and work. ***
History of nuclear physics Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions, in addition to the study of other forms of nuclear matter. Nuclear physics should not be confused with atomic physics, which studies the ...
– history of the field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. *** History of optics – history of the branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. ***
History of particle physics The idea that matter consists of smaller particles and that there exists a limited number of sorts of primary, smallest particles in nature has existed in natural philosophy at least since the 6th century BC. Such ideas gained physical credibilit ...
– history of the branch of physics that studies the existence and interactions of particles that are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter or radiation. ***
History of psychophysics Psychophysics quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce. Psychophysics has been described as "the scientific study of the relation between stimulus and sensation" or, m ...
– history of the quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect. *** History of plasma physics – history of the state of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized. *** History of polymer physics – history of the field of physics that studies polymers, their fluctuations, mechanical properties, as well as the kinetics of reactions involving degradation and polymerisation of polymers and monomers respectively. ***
History of quantum physics The history of quantum mechanics is a fundamental part of the history of modern physics. Quantum mechanics' history, as it interlaces with the history of quantum chemistry, began essentially with a number of different scientific discoveries: the ...
– history of the branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant. *** Relativity – *** History of statics – history of the branch of mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads (force, torque/moment) on physical systems in static equilibrium, that is, in a state where the relative positions of subsystems do not vary over time, or where components and structures are at a constant velocity. *** History of solid state physics – history of the study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as quantum mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy. *** History of vehicle dynamics – history of the dynamics of vehicles, here assumed to be ground vehicles. **
History of chemistry The history of chemistry represents a time span from ancient history to the present. By 1000 BC, civilizations used technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include the discovery of fire, e ...
– history of the physical science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate the chemical reactions ***
History of analytical chemistry Analytical chemistry studies and uses instruments and methods to separate, identify, and quantify matter. In practice, separation, identification or quantification may constitute the entire analysis or be combined with another method. Separati ...
– history of the study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. *** History of astrochemistry – history of the study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. ****
History of cosmochemistry Cosmochemistry (from Greek κόσμος ''kósmos'', "universe" and χημεία ''khemeía'') or chemical cosmology is the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions. This is done ...
– history of the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions ***
History of atmospheric chemistry Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary approach of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorol ...
– history of the branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines ***
History of biochemistry The history of biochemistry can be said to have started with the ancient Greeks who were interested in the composition and processes of life, although biochemistry as a specific scientific discipline has its beginning around the early 19th centur ...
– history of the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes. **** History of agrochemistry – history of the study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and remediation. **** History of bioinorganic chemistry – history of the examines the role of metals in biology. **** History of bioorganic chemistry – history of the rapidly growing scientific discipline that combines organic chemistry and biochemistry. **** History of biophysical chemistry – history of the new branch of chemistry that covers a broad spectrum of research activities involving biological systems. **** History of environmental chemistry – history of the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. **** History of immunochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components on the immune system. **** History of medicinal chemistry – history of the discipline at the intersection of chemistry, especially synthetic organic chemistry, and pharmacology and various other biological specialties, where they are involved with design, chemical synthesis and development for market of pharmaceutical agents (drugs). ****
History of pharmacology The history of pharmacy as an independent science dates back to the first third of the 19th century. Before then, pharmacy evolved from antiquity as part of medicine. The history of pharmacy coincides well with the history of medicine, but it's imp ...
– history of the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action. **** History of natural product chemistry – history of the chemical compound or substance produced by a living organism – history of the found in nature that usually has a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design. ****
History of neurochemistry Neurochemistry is the study of chemicals, including neurotransmitters and other molecules such as psychopharmaceuticals and neuropeptides, that control and influence the physiology of the nervous system. This particular field within neuroscience ...
– history of the specific study of neurochemicals, which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function. ***
History of computational chemistry Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulation to assist in solving chemical problems. It uses methods of theoretical chemistry, incorporated into computer programs, to calculate the structures and properties of mol ...
– history of the branch of chemistry that uses principles of computer science to assist in solving chemical problems. **** History of cheminformatics – history of the use of computer and informational techniques, applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry. **** History of molecular mechanics – history of the uses Newtonian mechanics to model molecular systems. *** History of Flavor chemistry – history of the someone who uses chemistry to engineer artificial and natural flavors. *** History of Flow chemistry – history of the chemical reaction is run in a continuously flowing stream rather than in batch production. ***
History of geochemistry Geochemistry is the science that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms behind major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and its oceans. The realm of geochemistry extends beyond the Earth, encompassing the ...
– history of the study of the mechanisms behind major geological systems using chemistry **** History of aqueous geochemistry – history of the study of the role of various elements in watersheds, including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how elemental fluxes are exchanged through atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions **** History of isotope geochemistry – history of the study of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes using chemistry and geology **** History of ocean chemistry – history of the studies the chemistry of marine environments including the influences of different variables. **** History of organic geochemistry – history of the study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on Earth **** History of regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry – history of the study of the spatial variation in the chemical composition of materials at the surface of the Earth *** History of inorganic chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds. ***
History of nuclear chemistry Nuclear chemistry is the sub-field of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes, and transformations in the nuclei of atoms, such as nuclear transmutation and nuclear properties. It is the chemistry of radioactive elements such as t ...
– history of the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties. **** History of radiochemistry – history of the chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being inactive as the isotopes are stable). ***
History of organic chemistry Organic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, and reactions of organic compounds and organic materials, i.e., matter in its various forms that contain carbon atoms.Clayden, J.; ...
– history of the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives. **** History of petrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. ***
History of organometallic chemistry Organometallic chemistry is the study of organometallic compounds, chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal, including alkali, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and so ...
– history of the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal. ***
History of photochemistry Photochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the chemical effects of light. Generally, this term is used to describe a chemical reaction caused by absorption of ultraviolet (wavelength from 100 to 400  nm), visible light (400– ...
– history of the study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules.. ***
History of physical chemistry Physical chemistry is the study of macroscopic and microscopic phenomena in chemical systems in terms of the principles, practices, and concepts of physics such as motion, energy, force, time, thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mecha ...
– history of the study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts. **** History of chemical kinetics – history of the study of rates of chemical processes. **** History of chemical thermodynamics – history of the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. ****
History of electrochemistry Electrochemistry, a branch of chemistry, went through several changes during its evolution from early principles related to magnets in the early 16th and 17th centuries, to complex theories involving conductivity, electric charge and mathematical me ...
– history of the branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution. **** History of Femtochemistry – history of the Femtochemistry is the science that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond, hence the name). **** History of mathematical chemistry – history of the area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. **** History of mechanochemistry – history of the coupling of the mechanical and the chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and includes mechanical breakage, chemical behaviour of mechanically stressed solids (e.g., stress-corrosion cracking), tribology, polymer degradation under shear, cavitation-related phenomena (e.g., sonochemistry and sonoluminescence), shock wave chemistry and physics, and even the burgeoning field of molecular machines. **** History of physical organic chemistry – history of the study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules. ****
History of quantum chemistry Quantum chemistry, also called molecular quantum mechanics, is a branch of physical chemistry focused on the application of quantum mechanics to chemical systems, particularly towards the quantum-mechanical calculation of electronic contributions ...
– history of the branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems. **** History of sonochemistry – history of the study of the effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems. **** History of stereochemistry – history of the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules. ****
History of supramolecular chemistry Supramolecular chemistry refers to the branch of chemistry concerning chemical systems composed of a discrete number of molecules. The strength of the forces responsible for spatial organization of the system range from weak intermolecular forces ...
– history of the area of chemistry beyond the molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. ****
History of thermochemistry Thermochemistry is the study of the heat energy which is associated with chemical reactions and/or phase changes such as melting and boiling. A reaction may release or absorb energy, and a phase change may do the same. Thermochemistry focuses on ...
– history of the study of the energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. *** History of phytochemistry – history of the strict sense of the word the study of phytochemicals. ***
History of polymer chemistry Polymer chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that focuses on the structures of chemicals, chemical synthesis, and Chemical property, chemical and physical properties of polymers and macromolecules. The principles and methods used within poly ...
– history of the multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. ***
History of solid-state chemistry Solid-state chemistry, also sometimes referred as materials chemistry, is the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids. It therefore has a str ...
– history of the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids *** Multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry **** History of chemical biology – history of the scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology that involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems. **** History of chemical engineering – history of the branch of engineering that deals with physical science (e.g., chemistry and physics), and life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) with mathematics and economics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms. **** History of chemical oceanography – history of the study of the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth's oceans. **** History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics. ****
History of materials science Materials science has shaped the development of civilizations since the dawn of mankind. Better materials for tools and weapons has allowed mankind to spread and conquer, and advancements in material processing like steel and aluminum production co ...
– history of the interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering. ****
History of nanotechnology The history of nanotechnology traces the development of the concepts and experimental work falling under the broad category of nanotechnology. Although nanotechnology is a relatively recent development in scientific research, the development of ...
– history of the study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale **** History of oenology – history of the science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture. **** History of spectroscopy – history of the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy ****
History of surface science Surface science is the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid– liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces. It includes the fi ...
– history of the Surface science is the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces. ** History of earth science – history of the all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. Earth science, and all of its branches, are branches of physical science. *** History of atmospheric sciences – history of the umbrella term for the study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. ***
History of biogeography Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, ...
– history of the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. ***
History of cartography The history of cartography refers to the development and consequences of cartography, or mapmaking technology, throughout human history. Maps have been one of the most important human inventions for millennia, allowing humans to explain and navig ...
– history of the study and practice of making maps or globes. ***
History of climatology Climatology (from Greek , ''klima'', "place, zone"; and , ''-logia'') or climate science is the scientific study of Earth's climate, typically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of at least 30 years. This modern field of study ...
– history of the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time *** History of coastal geography – history of the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. *** History of environmental science – history of an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. ****
History of ecology Ecology is a new science and considered as an important branch of biological science, having only become prominent during the second half of the 20th century. Ecological thought is derivative of established currents in philosophy, particularly f ...
– history of the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. ***** History of freshwater biology – history of the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems and is a branch of Limnology *****
History of marine biology Marine biology is a hybrid subject that combines aspects of organismal function, ecological interaction and the study of marine biodiversity. The earliest studies of marine biology trace back to the Phoenicians and the Greeks who are known as th ...
– history of the scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water *****
History of parasitology Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question but by their way of life. This means it f ...
– history of the Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. ***** History of population dynamics – history of the Population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of populations, and the biological and environmental processes influencing those changes. **** History of environmental chemistry – history of the Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. **** History of environmental soil science – history of the Environmental soil science is the study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere. **** History of environmental geology – history of the Environmental geology, like hydrogeology, is an applied science concerned with the practical application of the principles of geology in the solving of environmental problems. ****
History of toxicology Toxicology is a scientific discipline, overlapping with biology, chemistry, pharmacology, and medicine, that involves the study of the adverse effects of chemical substances on living organisms and the practice of diagnosing and treating ex ...
– history of the branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms. ***
History of geodesy The history of geodesy deals with the historical development of measurements and representations of the Earth. The corresponding scientific discipline, '' geodesy'' ( /dʒiːˈɒdɪsi/), began in pre-scientific antiquity and blossomed during th ...
– history of the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space ***
History of geography The history of geography includes many histories of geography which have differed over time and between different cultural and political groups. In more recent developments, geography has become a distinct academic discipline. 'Geography' deriv ...
– history of the science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth *** History of geoinformatics – history of the science and the technology which develops and uses information science infrastructure to address the problems of geography, geosciences and related branches of engineering. *** History of geology – history of the study of the Earth, with the general exclusion of present-day life, flow within the ocean, and the atmosphere. **** History of planetary geology – history of the planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. ***
History of geomorphology Geomorphology (from Ancient Greek: , ', "earth"; , ', "form"; and , ', "study") is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or ...
– history of the scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them *** History of geostatistics – history of the branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets ***
History of geophysics The historical development of geophysics has been motivated by two factors. One of these is the research curiosity of humankind related to planet Earth and its several components, its events and its problems. The second is economical usage of Earth' ...
– history of the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods. *** History of glaciology – history of the study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice. ***
History of hydrology Hydrology () is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources, and environmental watershed sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is call ...
– history of the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability. *** History of hydrogeology – history of the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers). ***
History of mineralogy Early writing on mineralogy, especially on gemstones, comes from ancient Babylonia, the ancient Greco-Roman world, ancient and medieval History of China, China, and Sanskrit texts from History of India, ancient India.Needham, Volume 3, 637. Books o ...
– history of the study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals. ***
History of meteorology Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences (which include atmospheric chemistry and physics) with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not ...
– history of the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere which explains and forecasts weather events. ***
History of oceanography Oceanography (), also known as oceanology and ocean science, is the scientific study of the oceans. It is an Earth science, which covers a wide range of topics, including ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics ...
– history of the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean ***
History of paleoclimatology Paleoclimatology (British spelling, palaeoclimatology) is the study of climates for which direct measurements were not taken. As instrumental records only span a tiny part of Earth's history, the reconstruction of ancient climate is important to ...
– history of the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth ***
History of paleontology The history of paleontology traces the history of the effort to understand the history of life on Earth by studying the fossil record left behind by living organisms. Since it is concerned with understanding living organisms of the past, paleonto ...
– history of the study of prehistoric life ***
History of petrology Petrology () is the branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous and metamorphic petrology are commonly taught together ...
– history of the branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks. ***
History of limnology Limnology ( ; from Greek λίμνη, ''limne'', "lake" and λόγος, ''logos'', "knowledge") is the study of inland aquatic ecosystems. The study of limnology includes aspects of the biological, chemical, physical, and geological characteristic ...
– history of the study of inland waters ***
History of seismology Seismology (; from Ancient Greek σεισμός (''seismós'') meaning "earthquake" and -λογία (''-logía'') meaning "study of") is the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other ...
– history of the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies ***
History of soil science The early concepts of soil were based on ideas developed by a German chemist, Justus von Liebig (1803–1873), and modified and refined by agricultural scientists who worked on samples of soil in laboratories, greenhouses, and on small field plots ...
– history of the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils. *** History of topography – history of the study of surface shape and features of the Earth and other observable astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids. *** History of volcanology – history of the study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena. *
History of biology The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times. Although the concept of ''biology'' as a single coherent field arose in the 19th century, the biological sciences emerged from traditions of medicine a ...
– history of the study of living organisms. ** History of aerobiology – history of the study of airborne organic particles ** History of agriculture – history of the study of producing crops from the land, with an emphasis on practical applications **
History of anatomy The history of anatomy extends from the earliest examinations of sacrifice, sacrificial victims to the sophisticated analyses of the body performed by modern anatomists and scientists. Written descriptions of human organs and parts can be traced ...
– history of the study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or specifically in humans *** History of human anatomy – history of the scientific study of the morphology of the adult human. ** History of astrobiology – history of the study of evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe—also known as
exobiology Astrobiology, and the related field of exobiology, is an interdisciplinary scientific field that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. Astrobiology is the multidisciplinary field that investig ...
, exopaleontology, and
bioastronomy Astrobiology, and the related field of exobiology, is an interdisciplinary scientific field that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. Astrobiology is the multidisciplinary field that investig ...
**
History of biochemistry The history of biochemistry can be said to have started with the ancient Greeks who were interested in the composition and processes of life, although biochemistry as a specific scientific discipline has its beginning around the early 19th centur ...
– history of the study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level ** History of bioengineering – history of the study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology **
History of biogeography Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, ...
– history of the study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally ** History of bioinformatics – history of the use of information technology for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and other biological data ** History of biomathematics – history of the quantitative or mathematical study of biological processes, with an emphasis on modeling **
History of biomechanics Biomechanics is the study of the structure, function and motion of the mechanical aspects of biological systems, at any level from whole organisms to organs, cells and cell organelles, using the methods of mechanics. Biomechanics is a branch of b ...
– history of the often considered a branch of medicine, the study of the mechanics of living beings, with an emphasis on applied use through prosthetics or
orthotics Orthotics ( el, Ορθός, translit=ortho, lit=to straighten, to align) is a medical specialty that focuses on the design and application of orthoses, or braces. An is "an externally applied device used to influence the structural and functio ...
** History of biomedical research – history of the study of the human body in health and disease **
History of biophysics History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the study of biological processes through physics, by applying the theories and methods traditionally used in the physical sciences ** History of biotechnology – history of the new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology ** History of building biology – history of the study of the indoor living environment ** History of botany – history of the study of plants ** History of cell biology – history of the study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell ** History of conservation biology – history of the study of the preservation, protection, or restoration of the natural environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife ** History of chronobiology – history of the field of biology that examines periodic (cyclic) phenomena in living organisms and their adaptation to solar- and lunar-related rhythms. ** History of cryobiology – history of the study of the effects of lower than normally preferred temperatures on living beings. ** History of developmental biology – history of the study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure *** History of embryology – history of the study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to birth). See also topobiology. *** History of gerontology – history of the study of aging processes. **
History of ecology Ecology is a new science and considered as an important branch of biological science, having only become prominent during the second half of the 20th century. Ecological thought is derivative of established currents in philosophy, particularly f ...
– history of the study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment ** History of environmental biology – history of the study of the natural world, as a whole or in a particular area, especially as affected by human activity ** History of epidemiology – history of the major component of public health research, studying factors affecting the health of populations **
History of evolution The history of life on Earth traces the processes by which living and fossil organisms evolved, from the earliest emergence of life to present day. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago (abbreviated as ''Ga'', for ''gigaannum'') and evide ...
– history of the any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations. ***
History of evolutionary biology History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
– history of the study of the origin and descent of species over time **** History of evolutionary developmental biology – history of the field of biology that compares the developmental processes of different organisms to determine the ancestral relationship between them, and to discover how developmental processes evolved. *** History of paleobiology – history of the discipline which combines the methods and findings of the natural science biology with the methods and findings of the earth science paleontology. ****
History of paleontology The history of paleontology traces the history of the effort to understand the history of life on Earth by studying the fossil record left behind by living organisms. Since it is concerned with understanding living organisms of the past, paleonto ...
– history of the study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life ** History of genetics – history of the study of genes and heredity ***
History of genomics Genomics is an interdisciplinary field of biology focusing on the structure, function, evolution, mapping, and editing of genomes. A genome is an organism's complete set of DNA, including all of its genes as well as its hierarchical, three-dim ...
– history of the discipline in genetics concerned with the study of the genomes of organisms. *** History of proteomics – history of the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions *** History of population genetics – history of the study of changes in gene frequencies in ** History of histology – history of the study of cells and tissues, a microscopic branch of anatomy ** History of integrative biology – history of the study of whole organisms **
History of limnology Limnology ( ; from Greek λίμνη, ''limne'', "lake" and λόγος, ''logos'', "knowledge") is the study of inland aquatic ecosystems. The study of limnology includes aspects of the biological, chemical, physical, and geological characteristic ...
– history of the study of inland waters **
History of marine biology Marine biology is a hybrid subject that combines aspects of organismal function, ecological interaction and the study of marine biodiversity. The earliest studies of marine biology trace back to the Phoenicians and the Greeks who are known as th ...
– history of the study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other living beings **
History of microbiology Microbiology () is the scientific study of microorganisms, those being unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, bacteriology, pr ...
– history of the study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other living things *** History of bacteriology – history of the study of bacteria. *** History of virology – history of the study of viruses and some other virus-like agents **
History of molecular biology The history of molecular biology begins in the 1930s with the convergence of various, previously distinct biological and physical disciplines: biochemistry, genetics, microbiology, virology and physics. With the hope of understanding life at its mo ...
– history of the study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, some cross over with biochemistry *** History of structural biology – history of the branch of
molecular biology Molecular biology is the branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells, including biomolecular synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions. The study of chemical and physi ...
,
biochemistry Biochemistry or biological chemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology and ...
, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules ** History of morphology – history of the In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features. ** History of mycology – history of the study of fungi **
History of oceanography Oceanography (), also known as oceanology and ocean science, is the scientific study of the oceans. It is an Earth science, which covers a wide range of topics, including ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics ...
– history of the study of the ocean, including ocean life, environment, geography, weather, and other aspects influencing the ocean ** History of oncology – history of the study of cancer processes, including virus or
mutation In biology, a mutation is an alteration in the nucleic acid sequence of the genome of an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA. Viral genomes contain either DNA or RNA. Mutations result from errors during DNA or viral replication, mi ...
oncogenesis Carcinogenesis, also called oncogenesis or tumorigenesis, is the formation of a cancer, whereby normal cells are transformed into cancer cells. The process is characterized by changes at the cellular, genetic, and epigenetic levels and abnor ...
,
angiogenesis Angiogenesis is the physiological process through which new blood vessels form from pre-existing vessels, formed in the earlier stage of vasculogenesis. Angiogenesis continues the growth of the vasculature by processes of sprouting and splitting ...
and tissues remoldings ** History of population biology – history of the study of groups of conspecific organisms, including *** History of population ecology – history of the study of how population dynamics and extinction *** History of population genetics – history of the study of changes in gene frequencies in populations of organisms ** Pathobiology or pathology – history of the study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and development of disease **
History of parasitology Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question but by their way of life. This means it f ...
– history of the study of parasites and parasitism **
History of pharmacology The history of pharmacy as an independent science dates back to the first third of the 19th century. Before then, pharmacy evolved from antiquity as part of medicine. The history of pharmacy coincides well with the history of medicine, but it's imp ...
– history of the study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs and synthetic medicines **
History of physiology Physiology (; ) is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system. As a sub-discipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical ...
– history of the study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of living organisms ***
History of immunology The following are notable events in the Timeline of immunology: * 2600 BCE – Imhotep uses poultice on an open wound in breast cancer to induce infection and destroy the tumor. * 1549 – The earliest account of inoculation of smallpox (vario ...
– *** History of kinesiology – history of the Kinesiology, also known as human kinetics, is the scientific study of human movement *** History of neurobiology – history of the study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology and pathology ****
History of neuroscience From the ancient Egyptian mummifications to 18th-century scientific research on "globules" and neurons, there is evidence of neuroscience practice throughout the early periods of history. The early civilizations lacked adequate means to obtain kno ...
– history of the interdisciplinary science that studies the nervous system *** History of histology – ** History of phytopathology – history of the study of plant diseases (also called Plant Pathology) ** History of psychobiology – history of the study of the biological bases of
psychology Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries betwe ...
** History of sociobiology – history of the study of the biological bases of sociology ** History of systematics – history of the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time *** History of cladistics – history of the method of classifying species of organisms into groups called clades, which consist of an ancestor organism and all its descendants (and nothing else) *** History of phylogeny – history of the study of evolutionary relation among groups of organisms (e.g. species, populations), which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices *** History of taxonomy – history of the science of identifying and naming species, and arranging them into a classification. ** History of zoology – history of the study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and behavior *** History of arachnology – history of the scientific study of spiders and related animals such as scorpions, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, collectively called arachnids. **** History of acarology – history of the study of the taxon of arachnids that contains mites and ticks *** History of entomology – history of the study of insects ****
Timeline of entomology Entomology, the scientific study of insects and closely related terrestrial arthropods, has been impelled by the necessity of societies to protect themselves from insect-borne diseases, crop losses to pest insects, and insect-related discomfort, ...
**** History of myrmecology – history of the scientific study of ants, a branch of entomology **** History of coleopterology – history of the study of beetles **** History of lepidopterology – history of the study of a large order of insects that includes moths and butterflies (called lepidopterans) *** History of ethology – history of the study of animal behavior *** History of helminthology – history of the study of worms, especially parasitic worms *** History of herpetology – history of the study of reptiles and amphibians *** History of ichthyology – history of the study of fish *** History of malacology – history of the branch of invertebrate zoology which deals with the study of the Mollusca (mollusks or molluscs), the second-largest phylum of animals in terms of described species after the arthropods. *** History of mammalogy – history of the study of mammals **** History of biological anthropology – history of the studies the physical development of the human species. Also called physical anthropology. **** History of cetology – history of the branch of marine mammal science that studies the approximately eighty species of whales, dolphins, and porpoise in the scientific order Cetacea. *** History of nematology – history of the scientific discipline concerned with the study of nematodes, or roundworms *** History of ornithology – history of the study of birds


General natural science concepts

*
Discovery science Discovery science (also known as discovery-based science) is a scientific methodology which aims to find new patterns, correlations, and form hypotheses through the analysis of large-scale experimental data. The term “discovery science” enco ...
*
Empirical evidence Empirical evidence for a proposition is evidence, i.e. what supports or counters this proposition, that is constituted by or accessible to sense experience or experimental procedure. Empirical evidence is of central importance to the sciences and ...
*
Experiment An experiment is a procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis, or determine the efficacy or likelihood of something previously untried. Experiments provide insight into Causality, cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome oc ...
*
Hypothesis A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous obse ...
*
Laboratory A laboratory (; ; colloquially lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratory services are provided in a variety of settings: physicia ...
*
Nature Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physics, physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomenon, phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. ...
*
Occam's razor Occam's razor, Ockham's razor, or Ocham's razor ( la, novacula Occami), also known as the principle of parsimony or the law of parsimony ( la, lex parsimoniae), is the problem-solving principle that "entities should not be multiplied beyond neces ...
*
Peer review Peer review is the evaluation of work by one or more people with similar competencies as the producers of the work (peers). It functions as a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field. Peer review ...
*
Physical law Scientific laws or laws of science are statements, based on repeated experiments or observations, that describe or predict a range of natural phenomena. The term ''law'' has diverse usage in many cases (approximate, accurate, broad, or narrow) a ...
*
Reproducibility Reproducibility, also known as replicability and repeatability, is a major principle underpinning the scientific method. For the findings of a study to be reproducible means that results obtained by an experiment or an observational study or in a ...
*
Scientific evidence Scientific evidence is evidence that serves to either support or counter a scientific theory or hypothesis, although scientists also use evidence in other ways, such as when applying theories to practical problems. "Discussions about empirical ev ...
*
Scientific method The scientific method is an empirical method for acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable practitioners in previous centuries; see the article history of scientific m ...
*
Scientific theory A scientific theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world and universe that has been repeatedly tested and corroborated in accordance with the scientific method, using accepted protocols of observation, measurement, and evaluatio ...
* Testability *
Universe The universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy. The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological description of the development of the universe. Acc ...
*
Validity Validity or Valid may refer to: Science/mathematics/statistics: * Validity (logic), a property of a logical argument * Scientific: ** Internal validity, the validity of causal inferences within scientific studies, usually based on experiments ** ...


Natural science organizations


Natural science publications

* Physical science journals ** List of astronomy journals **
List of chemistry journals This is a list of scientific journals in chemistry and its various subfields. For journals mainly about materials science, see List of materials science journals. A B * ''Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry'' * ''Biochemical Journal'' * ''B ...
**
List of earth and atmospheric sciences journals This list presents notable scientific journals in earth and atmospheric sciences and its various subfields. Multi-disciplinary Atmospheric science Geochemistry * '' Chemical Geology'' * ''Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta'' * '' Geosta ...
** List of physics journals *
List of biology journals This is a list of articles about scientific journals in biology and its various subfields. General Agriculture *''Journal of Animal Science'' *''Journal of Dairy Science'' *''Journal of Food Science'' *'' Poultry Science'' *'' Animal Feed S ...
**
List of botany journals The following is a list of notable botanical scientific journals. General botany The following table is a list of scientific journals publishing articles on many areas of botany. Agronomy and horticulture The following table is a list of ...
** List of zoology journals


Persons influential in natural science

*
List of physicists Following is a list of physicists who are notable for their achievements. A *Jules Aarons – United States (1921–2016) *Ernst Karl Abbe – Germany (1840–1905) *Derek Abbott – Australia (born 1960) * Hasan Abdullayev – Azerbaijan Dem ...
**
List of biophysicists This is a list of notable people known for their research in biophysics. A * Gary Ackers (American, 1939–2011) — thermodynamics of protein assembly into complexes, protein-DNA interactions and enzyme subunit interactions * David Ag ...
** List of geophysicists *
List of astronomers The following is a list of astronomers, astrophysicists and other notable people who have made contributions to the field of astronomy. They may have won major prizes or awards, developed or invented widely used techniques or technologies within as ...
**
List of cosmologists This is a list of people who have made noteworthy contributions to cosmology (the study of the history and large-scale structure of the universe) and their cosmological achievements A * Tom Abel (1970–) studied primordial star formation * R ...
* List of chemists **
List of biochemists This is a list of biochemists. It should include those who have been important to the development or practice of biochemistry. Their research or applications have made significant contributions in the area of basic or applied biochemistry. {{co ...
**
List of neurochemists {{expand list, date=April 2013 This is a list of neurochemists. * David R. Brown * Fernando Garcia de Mello * Michaela Jaksch * David Nutt * Candace Pert * Juda Hirsch Quastel * John Raymond Smythies * Tilli Tansey * Johann Ludwig Wilhelm Thu ...
**
List of electrochemists {{Short description, none This is a list of electrochemists. Electrochemists * Alexander Frumkin * Faiza Al-Kharafi * John Alfred Valentine Butler * Hans Falkenhagen * Martin Fleischmann * Alexander Frumkin * Heinz Gerischer * Johann Wilhelm H ...
*
List of earth scientists A ''list'' is any set of items in a row. List or lists may also refer to: People * List (surname) Organizations * List College, an undergraduate division of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America * SC Germania List, German rugby unio ...
**
List of Russian earth scientists This list of Russian Earth scientists includes the notable geographers, geologists, oceanographers, meteorologists, ecologists and other representatives of Earth sciences from the Russian Federation, the Soviet Union, the Russian Empire and other ...
** List of cartographers ** List of climatologists ** List of geographers ** List of geologists ** List of geophysicists ** List of glaciologists **
List of mineralogists The following is a list of notable mineralogists and other people who made notable contributions to mineralogy. Included are winners of major mineralogy awards such as the Dana Medal and the Roebling Medal. Mineralogy is a subject of geology spec ...
**
List of meteorologists {{Short description, none __TOC__ A–B *Cleveland Abbe *Aristotle *David Bates (physicist), David Bates *Francis Beaufort *Tor Bergeron *Jacob Bjerknes *Vilhelm Bjerknes *Howard B. Bluestein *Bert Bolin *Léon Teisserenc de Bort *Harold E. Brooks ...
**
List of paleontologists This is a list of notable paleontologists who have made significant contributions to the field of paleontology. Only paleontologists with biographical articles in Wikipedia are listed here. A * Othenio Abel (Australia, 1875-1946) * William ...
** List of soil scientists *
List of biologists This is a list of notable biologists with a biography in Wikipedia. It includes zoologists, botanists, biochemists, ornithologists, entomologists, malacologists, naturalists and other specialities. A Ab–Ag *John Jacob Abel (1857– ...
** List of botanists by author abbreviation **
List of carcinologists A carcinologist is a scientist who studies crustaceans or is otherwise involved in carcinology (the science of crustaceans). References

{{Reflist, 24em Carcinologists, . Lists of zoologists, Carcinologists ...
**
List of coleopterists {{Short description, none Notable students of coleopterology (beetles) include the following. Coleopterists from Australia * George Francis Bornemissza (born Hungary) * John Francis Lawrence (born U.S.A) Coleopterists from Austria * Stephan von ...
**
List of ecologists This is a list of notable ecologists. A-D * John Aber (USA) * Aziz Ab'Saber (Brazil) * Charles Christopher Adams (USA) * Warder Clyde Allee (USA) * Herbert G. Andrewartha ( Australia) * Sarah Martha Baker ( UK) * Fakhri A. Bazzaz (USA) * ...
**
List of malacologists This is a list of malacologists, scientists who study mollusks, such as snails, clams, cephalopods, and others, in a discipline named malacology. People who specialize in studying only or primarily the shells of mollusks are sometimes called ...
**
List of mammalogists A ''list'' is any set of items in a row. List or lists may also refer to: People * List (surname) Organizations * List College, an undergraduate division of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America * SC Germania List, German rugby union ...
** List of mycologists **
List of ornithologists __NOTOC__ This is a list of ornithology, ornithologists who have articles, in alphabetical order by surname. See also :Ornithologists. A *John Abbot (entomologist), John Abbot – US *Clinton Gilbert Abbott – US *William Louis Abbott – US *J ...
** List of pathologists ** List of zoologists by author abbreviation ** List of Nobel Prize winners in physiology or medicine


See also

*
Outline of science The following outline is provided as a topical overview of science; the discipline of science is defined as both the systematic effort of acquiring knowledge through observation, experimentation and reasoning, and the body of knowledge thus acq ...
** Outline of natural science *** Outline of physical science ****
Outline of earth science The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Earth science: Earth science – all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earthquake sc ...
**
Outline of formal science The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to formal science: Formal science – branches of knowledge that are concerned with formal systems, such as those under the branches of: logic, mathematics, computer science, s ...
**
Outline of social science The social sciences are the sciences concerned with societies, human behaviour, and social relationships. Definition Social science can be described as all of the following: * A science – systematic enterprise that builds and organiz ...
**
Outline of applied science The following Outline (list), outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to applied science: Applied science – the branch of science that applies existing scientific knowledge to develop more practical applications, including i ...


References


External links


The History of Recent Science and Technology

Natural Sciences
Information on the Natural Sciences degree programme at Durham University.
Natural Sciences
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Natural Sciences
Information on the Natural Sciences degree programme at the University of Bath which includes the Biological Sciences, Chemistry, Pharmacology, Physics and Environmental Studies.
Reviews of Books About Natural Science
This site contains over 50 previously published reviews of books about natural science, plus selected essays on timely topics in natural science.
Scientific Grant Awards Database
Contains details of over 2,000,000 scientific research projects conducted over the past 25 years.
Natural Sciences Tripos
Provides information on the framework within which most of the natural science is taught at the University of Cambridge.
E!Science
Up-to-date science news aggregator from major sources including universities. {{Outline footer *
Natural science Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatab ...
Natural science Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatab ...