Mandate Of Heaven

The Mandate of Heaven
Heaven or Tin Ming, Tian
Tian Ming (Chinese: 天命; pinyin: Tiānmìng; Wade–Giles: T'ien-ming) and in various dialectal spellings, is a Chinese political and religious doctrine used since ancient times to justify the rule of the Emperor of China. According to this belief, heaven (天, Tian)—which embodies the natural order and will of the universe—bestows the mandate on a just ruler of China, the "Heavenly Son" of the "Celestial Empire". If a ruler was overthrown, this was interpreted as an indication that the ruler was unworthy, and had lost the mandate. It was also a common belief that natural disasters such as famine and flood were signs of heaven's displeasure with the ruler, so there would often be revolts following major disasters as citizens saw these as signs that the Mandate of Heaven
Heaven had been withdrawn.[1]

A brief flow chart describing the dynastic cycles in Imperial China
China on claiming to withdrawing the Mandate of Heaven

The Mandate of Heaven
Heaven does not require a legitimate ruler to be of noble birth, depending instead on the just and able performance of the rulers and their heirs. Dynasties such as the Han and Ming dynasties were founded by men of common origins. The concept is in some ways similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings; however, unlike the European concept, it does not confer an unconditional right to rule. The Mandate would be a preoccupation in a rulers lifetime, where they would hold onto the Mandate and live according to Heavens. Intrinsic to the concept of the Mandate of Heaven
Heaven was the right of rebellion against an unjust ruler. Chinese historians interpreted a successful revolt as evidence that Heaven
Heaven had withdrawn its mandate from the ruler. Throughout Chinese history, times of poverty and natural disasters were often taken as signs that heaven considered the incumbent ruler unjust and thus in need of replacement. The Mandate of Heaven
Heaven was often invoked by philosophers and scholars in China
China as a way to curtail the abuse of power by the ruler. While each dynasty was not the same, they each had a lineage that passed on the prospective ruler by order of generational descent or their priority of birth. Many emperors during the imperial times would optimize to have many sons who could be candidates to fill the position after the current ruler has died. In addition Heaven
Heaven was thought to be of how a rulers works and performance was, which reflected upon how favorable they would be to Heaven. Such as Mencius, a great philosopher who many thought was the successor to Confucius
Confucius proclaimed[2]:

The people are of supreme importance; the altars of the gods of earth and grain come next; last comes the ruler. That is why he who gains the confidence of the multitudinous people will be Emperor... When a feudal lord endangers the altars of the gods of earth and grain, he should be replaced. When the sacrificial animals are sleek, the offerings are clean and the sacrifices are observed at due times, and yet floods and droughts come [by the agency of heaven], then the altars should be replaced. — Mencius

The concept of the Mandate of Heaven
Heaven was first used to support the rule of the kings of the Zhou dynasty
Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE), and legitimize their overthrow of the earlier Shang dynasty
Shang dynasty (1600–1069 BCE). It was used throughout the history of China
China to legitimize the successful overthrow and installation of new emperors, including non-Han ethnic monarchs such as the Qing dynasty
Qing dynasty (1636-1912). This concept was also used by monarchs in neighboring countries like Korea and Vietnam.[3]

Contents

1 The right to rule and the right of rebellion 2 Transition between the Shang and the Zhou 3 Five Dynasties period 4 Transition between the Ming and the Qing 5 Neighboring countries 6 See also 7 References

7.1 Citations 7.2 Bibliography

The right to rule and the right of rebellion[edit]

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Chinese historians interpreted a successful revolt as evidence that the Mandate of Heaven
Heaven had passed. In China, the right of rebellion against an unjust ruler has been a part of political philosophy ever since the Zhou dynasty, and the successful rebellion was interpreted by Chinese historians as evidence that divine approval had passed on to the successive dynasty. The Right of Rebellion is not coded into any official law, rather rebellion is always outlawed and severely punished, but still is a positive right grounded in the Chinese moral system. Often, it is used as a justification for actions to overthrow a previous dynasty after a rebellion has been successful and a new dynastic rule has been established. Since the winner is the one who determines who has obtained the Mandate of Heaven
Heaven and who has lost it, some Chinese scholars consider it to be a sort of Victor's justice, best characterized in the popular Chinese saying "The winner becomes king, the loser becomes outlaw" (Chinese: ”成者爲王，敗者爲寇“). Due to the above, it is considered that Chinese historical accounts of the fall of a dynasty and the rise of a new one need to be handled with caution. Chinese traditional historical compiling methods produce accounts that tend to fit their account to the theory; emphasize aspects tending to prove that the old dynasty lost the Mandate of Heaven
Heaven and the new one gained it, and de-emphasize other aspects. Transition between the Shang and the Zhou[edit]

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The prosperous Shang dynasty
Shang dynasty saw its rule filled with many outstanding accomplishments. Notably, the dynasty lasted for a considerable time during which 31 kings ruled over an extended period of 17 generations. During this period, the dynasty enjoyed a period of peace and tranquility in which citizens could make a good living. The government was originally able to control most of its internal affairs due to the firm support provided by the people. As time went on, however, the rulers' abuse of the other social classes led to social unrest and instability. The corruption in this dynasty created the conditions necessary for a new ruling house to rise —the Zhou dynasty. Rebellion against the Shang was led by Zhou Wu. They created the Mandate of Heaven
Heaven to explain their right to assume rule and presumed that the only way to hold the mandate was to rule well in the eyes of Heaven. They believed that the Shang ruling house had become morally corrupt, and that the Shang leaders' loss of virtue entitled their own house to take over. The overthrow of the Shang Dynasty, they said, was in accordance with the mandate given by Heaven.[4] After the Zhou became the ruling dynasty, they mostly appointed their own officials. The Zhou Dynasty had their own way of assigning their officials. However, in order to appease some of the citizens, they allowed some Shang beneficiaries to continue governing their small kingdoms in compliance with Zhou rules and regulations. As the empire continued to expand, intermarriage increased because the rulers believed that it was a method of forming strong alliances that enabled them to absorb more countries into the dynasty. In case of a war, the Zhou dynasty
Zhou dynasty boasted an excellent military and technology mostly because of influence from annexed countries. They also excelled in shipbuilding, which, coupled with their discovery of celestial navigation, made them excellent mariners. Intellectually, the Zhou excelled in fields of literature and philosophy while many governmental positions were filled according to the intellectual ability of a candidate. A large amount of literature survives from the Zhou period, including the Book of Changes, Book of History, Book of Etiquette, Book of Song, Book of Odes, and the Book of Rites. Most of these works are commentaries on the progress and political movement of the dynasty. In philosophical terms, Confucius
Confucius and his followers played an important role in shaping the mentality of the government as defined by the Five Confucian Relationships. These critical thinkers served as a foundation for the government. Their works primarily stressed the importance of the ruling class, respect and their relationship with the lower class. Due to the growing size of the dynasty, it became apparent that a centralized government would lead to a lot of confusion and corruption because the government would not be able to exert its influence or accede to the needs of everyone. To address this political barrier, the dynasty formed a decentralized government in which the empire was broken down into sections. Within these districts were administrators who were appointed by the government, in return, they had to maintain their allegiance to the main internal government. In effect, the Zhou dynasty
Zhou dynasty became a collection of districts. Consequently, this marked the fall of the dynasty as it became difficult for the central government to exert influence on all other regions of the empire. Finally, when the Zhou dynasty's power decreased, it was wiped out by the State of Qin, which believed that the Zhou had become weak and their rule unjust.[5] This transition emphasizes the customary trend of the Mandate of Heaven, which provided leeway for the rise of a new power. The Qin initially attempted to capitalize on the errors made by the Zhou, either by eliminating the source of error or reforming it. During this reformation, administrative changes were made and a system of legalism was developed which stated that the law is supreme over every individual, including the rulers. Although significant progress was made during the Qin dynasty, the persecution of scholars and ordinary citizens led to an unstable state. After the death of Qin Shihuang, first emperor of the Qin dynasty, a widespread revolt by prisoners, peasants, and unhappy soldiers inevitably led to the fall of the Qin dynasty
Qin dynasty due to its tyrannical practices.[citation needed] The establishment of the Han dynasty marked a great period in China’s history marked by significant changes in the political structure of the country. Under the Han emperors, significant changes were made in which the government introduced entrance examinations known as civil service or imperial examinations for governmental positions. Additionally, the Han dynasty prospered economically through the Silk Road
Silk Road and other trading means. Five Dynasties period[edit] Main article: Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, there was no dominant Chinese dynasty that ruled all of China. This created a problem for the Song dynasty
Song dynasty that followed, as they wanted to legitimize their rule by claiming that the Mandate of Heaven
Heaven had passed on them. The scholar-official Xue Juzheng
Xue Juzheng compiled the Old History of the Five Dynasties (五代史) during the 960s and 970s, after the Song dynasty
Song dynasty had taken northern China
China from the last of the Five Dynasties, the Later Zhou. A major purpose was to establish justification for the transference of the Mandate of Heaven
Heaven through these five dynasties, and thus to the Song dynasty. He argued that these dynasties met certain vital criteria to be considered as having attained the Mandate of Heaven
Heaven despite never having ruled all of China. One is that they all ruled the traditional Chinese heartland. They also held considerably more territory than any of the other Chinese states that had existed conterminously in the south. However, there were certain other areas where these dynasties all clearly fell short. The brutal behavior of Zhu Wen
Zhu Wen and the Later Liang was a source of considerable embarrassment, and thus there was pressure to exclude them from the Mandate. The following three dynasties, the Later Tang, Later Jin, and Later Han were all non-Han Chinese dynasties, all having been ruled by the Shatuo
Shatuo ethnic minority. There is also the concern that though each of them was the most powerful Chinese kingdom of its respective era, none of them ever really had the ability to unify the entire Chinese realm as there were several powerful states to the south. However, it was the conclusion of Xue Juzheng
Xue Juzheng that the Mandate had indeed passed through each of the Five Dynasties, and thus onto the Song Dynasty when it conquered the last of those dynasties. Transition between the Ming and the Qing[edit] In previous dynasties the Song, Jin, and Yuan dynasties reigned for much of the beginning three centuries where the mandate of heaven was questioned heavenly between dynastic councils among each emperor. Some emperors were not entirely sure of their validity when it came to claiming the mandate, for it was ambiguous. Especially for the case of the Jurchen Jin, where much of the council was not sure how to discern the validity of their rulers. From the Emperor Gaozong of the Tang Dynasty to Kangxi Emperor
Kangxi Emperor much of the chosen emperors contemplated much of this when they became a contender for the mandate. The reason for this was because of the ambiguity of the Mandate and overwhelmingly unofficial formality when declaring the Mandate of Heaven. However, Kubilai Khan was the only indifferent ruler when he claimed the Mandate of Heaven
Heaven over the Yuan Dynasty since he had a sizable military and was part of the Khitan people, as with many others from the same background since they did not have the same traditions and culture as their Chinese adversaries. [6] It was said that the peasant group of the Ming dynasty
Ming dynasty were the real selectors which allowed for the Mandate of Heaven
Heaven to be claimed by the ruler. As a prospective candidate to the Mandate, they could please the peasantry group in order to win favor amongst the dynasty. It was solely politics from beginning to end and an attempt from the emperor to maintain a favorable act towards Heaven. Many emperors within the Qing dynasty
Qing dynasty looked immensely within themselves trying to come to terms with their ruling if natural disasters occurred within their time. This was interpreted as a warning of Heaven's displeased wrath towards an emperors ruling, such that the Mandate under their rule was unstable. Furthermore, Qing emperors would take their advisors feedback very seriously when pertaining to ruling and take it upon themselves to reflect on their current decisions of the dynastic overview in hopes that it favors Heaven. Towards the end of the Qing dynasty, as the Peoples Republic of China
China began to become established, there was no more Mandate to be claimed as it became a ritual of the past. Especially since there was no formal statement or writing of the Mandate of Heaven.[6] Neighboring countries[edit] The concept of the Mandate of Heaven
Heaven eventually spread to nearby countries as a justification for rule by divine political legitimacy. In Korea, it was first adopted by the Joseon
Joseon dynasty and became an enduring state ideology.[7] The Japanese government found the concept ideologically problematic, preferring not to have divine political legitimacy that was conditional and that could be withdrawn. The Japanese Taihō Code, formulated in 703, was largely an adaptation of the governmental system of China's then Tang dynasty, but the Mandate of Heaven
Heaven was specifically omitted. In later times, this need was obviated because the Imperial House of Japan
Japan claimed to be descended in an unbroken line from the Japanese sun goddess, Amaterasu. Nevertheless, while maintaining this role, the Japanese emperor became politically marginalized in the Nara and Heian periods by powerful regents of the Fujiwara clan
Fujiwara clan who seized executive control of state. Even though the Japanese imperial line itself remained unbroken after the eighth century, actual political authority passed through successive dynasties of regents and shōguns which cycled in a manner similar to that of Chinese dynasties. Even after the Meiji Restoration
Meiji Restoration in 1868, when the emperor was placed back in the center of the political bureaucracy, the throne itself had very little power vis-à-vis the Meiji oligarchy. Actual political power has passed through at least four systems since the Meiji restoration: the Taishō democracy, the militarists, the Occupation of Japan, and postwar democracy. The emperor today is a political figurehead and not a ruling sovereign. It could be said the imperial line of Japan
Japan survived for so long precisely because it did not have control over the state, and that the turmoil of succession was projected onto a series of proxy rulers. See also[edit]

Auctoritas Divine right of kings Khvarenah Noblesse oblige Translatio imperii Tian
Tian (Heaven) / Shangdi
Shangdi (God)

Tian
Tian Xia (All under Heaven) Tian
Tian Chao (Dynasty of Heaven) Tian
Tian Kehan (Khan of Heaven) Tian
Tian Zi (Son of Heaven)

References[edit] Citations[edit]

^ Szczepanski, Kallie. "What Is the Mandate of Heaven
Heaven in China?". About Education. Retrieved December 4, 2015. ^ Mencius. (2004). Mencius. Lau, D. C. (Dim Cheuk) (Rev. ed ed.). London: Penguin. ISBN 9780140449716. OCLC 56648867. CS1 maint: Extra text (link) ^ Jenkins, Brian. "Why the North Vietnamese will keep fighting" (PDF). RAND. Retrieved December 5, 2015. ^ Tignor, Robert L., et al. Worlds together, worlds apart. 4th ed., vol. 1, W.W. Norton & Company, 2014. ^ Tignor, Robert L., et al. Worlds together, worlds apart. 4th ed., vol. 1, W.W. Norton & Company, 2014. ^ a b Porter, Jonathan (February 12, 2016). Imperial China. Rowland & Littlefield, Inc. ISBN 9781442222922. ^ Diplomat, Gi-Wook Shin and Rennie J. Moon, The. "South Korea's President Lost the 'Mandate of Heaven'". The Diplomat. Retrieved 30 November 2017.

Bibliography[edit]

Jiang Yonglin (2011). The Mandate of Heaven
Heaven and The Great Ming Code. Asian Law
Law Series. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0295990651. Lee Jen-der (2014), "Crime and Punishment: The Case of Liu Hui in the Wei Shu", Early Medieval China: A Sourcebook, New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 156–165, ISBN 978-0-231-15987-6 . Mote, F.W. (1999). Imperial China: 900–1800. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01212-7.

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