Christopher Johnson McCandless (; February 12, 1968 – August 1992), also known by his pseudonym "Alexander Supertramp", was an American

adventure An adventure is an exciting experience or undertaking that is typically bold, sometimes risky. Adventures may be activities with danger such as traveling, exploring, skydiving, mountain climbing, scuba diving, river rafting, or other extreme ...

r who sought an increasingly

nomad A nomad is a member of a community without fixed habitation who regularly moves to and from the same areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads (owning livestock), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the po ...

ic lifestyle as he grew up. McCandless is the subject of '' Into the Wild'', a nonfiction book by

Jon Krakauer Jon Krakauer (born April 12, 1954) is an American writer and mountaineer. He is the author of bestselling non-fiction books—'' Into the Wild''; ''Into Thin Air''; ''Under the Banner of Heaven''; and '' Where Men Win Glory: The Odyssey of Pat ...

that was later made into a full-length feature film. After graduating from

Emory University Emory University is a private research university in Atlanta, Georgia. Founded in 1836 as "Emory College" by the Methodist Episcopal Church and named in honor of Methodist bishop John Emory, Emory is the second-oldest private institution of ...

Georgia Georgia most commonly refers to: * Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia * Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States Georgia may also refer to: Places Historical states and entities * Related to the ...

in 1990, McCandless traveled across North America and eventually hitchhiked to

Alaska Alaska ( ; russian: Аляска, Alyaska; ale, Alax̂sxax̂; ; ems, Alas'kaaq; Yup'ik: ''Alaskaq''; tli, Anáaski) is a state located in the Western United States on the northwest extremity of North America. A semi-exclave of the U.S. ...

in April 1992. There, he entered the Alaskan bush with minimal supplies, hoping to live simply off the land. On the eastern bank of the Sushana River, McCandless found an abandoned bus, Fairbanks Bus 142, which he used as a makeshift shelter until his death. In September, his

decomposing Decomposition or rot is the process by which dead organic substances are broken down into simpler organic or inorganic matter such as carbon dioxide, water, simple sugars and mineral salts. The process is a part of the nutrient cycle and is e ...

body, weighing only , was found inside the bus by a hunter. McCandless's cause of death was officially ruled to be starvation, although the exact circumstances relating to his death remain the subject of some debate. In January 1993, Krakauer published an article about McCandless in that month's issue of ''Outside'' magazine. He had been assigned the story and had written it under a tight deadline. Inspired by the details of McCandless's story, Krakauer wrote the biographical book ''Into the Wild'', which was subsequently adapted into a 2007 film directed by

Sean Penn Sean Justin Penn (born August 17, 1960) is an American actor and film director. He has won two Academy Awards, for his roles in the mystery drama ''Mystic River'' (2003) and the biopic ''Milk'' (2008). Penn began his acting career in televisi ...

, with

Emile Hirsch Emile Davenport Hirsch (born March 13, 1985) is an American actor. He played Chris McCandless in '' Into the Wild'' (2007). Other notable film roles include '' The Girl Next Door'' (2004), ''Lords of Dogtown'' (2005), ''Alpha Dog'' (2006), ''Spe ...

portraying McCandless. That same year, McCandless became the subject of Ron Lamothe's documentary ''

The Call of the Wild ''The Call of the Wild'' is a short adventure novel by Jack London, published in 1903 and set in Yukon, Canada, during the 1890s Klondike Gold Rush, when strong sled dogs were in high demand. The central character of the novel is a dog named ...

''.

Early life

Christopher Johnson McCandless was born in Inglewood,

California California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the m ...

and spent his early childhood in El Segundo,

. He was the eldest child of Wilhelmina Marie "Billie" McCandless ( née Johnson) and Walter "Walt" McCandless, and had a younger sister named Carine. McCandless also had six half-siblings from Walt's first marriage, who lived with their mother in California and later in

Denver Denver () is a consolidated city and county, the capital, and most populous city of the U.S. state of Colorado. Its population was 715,522 at the 2020 census, a 19.22% increase since 2010. It is the 19th-most populous city in the Unit ...

Colorado Colorado (, other variants) is a state in the Mountain states, Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It encompasses most of the Southern Rocky Mountains, as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the wes ...

. In 1976, the family relocated to Annandale,

Virginia Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States, between the Atlantic Coast and the Appalachian Mountains. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth ar ...

, where McCandless's father was hired as an antenna specialist for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). McCandless's mother worked as a secretary for

Hughes Aircraft The Hughes Aircraft Company was a major American aerospace and defense contractor founded on February 14, 1934 by Howard Hughes in Glendale, California, as a division of Hughes Tool Company. The company was known for producing, among other pro ...

. The couple went on to establish a successful consultancy business out of their home, specializing in Walt's area of expertise.'Into the Wild' Chris McCandless' Sister Says He Was Determined to Cut Ties with Parents
Eric Johnson, Gail Deutsch, Jasmine Brown, Alexa Valiente and Lauren Effron. ABC News. 9 November 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2022 Carine McCandless alleged in her memoir ''The Wild Truth'' that her parents inflicted verbal and physical abuse upon each other and their children, often fueled by her father's

alcoholism Alcoholism is, broadly, any drinking of alcohol that results in significant mental or physical health problems. Because there is disagreement on the definition of the word ''alcoholism'', it is not a recognized diagnostic entity. Predomi ...

. She cited their abusive childhood, as well as his reading of

Jack London John Griffith Chaney (January 12, 1876 – November 22, 1916), better known as Jack London, was an American novelist, journalist and activist. A pioneer of commercial fiction and American magazines, he was one of the first American authors to ...

's ''

'', as the motivating factors in her brother's desire to "disappear" into the wilderness. In a statement released to the media shortly before the memoir was released, Walt and Billie McCandless denied their daughter's accusations, stating that her book is "fictionalized writing

hat A hat is a head covering which is worn for various reasons, including protection against weather conditions, ceremonial reasons such as university graduation, religious reasons, safety, or as a fashion accessory. Hats which incorporate mecha ...

has absolutely nothing to do with our beloved son, Chris, his journey or his character. This whole unfortunate event in Chris's life 22 years ago is about Chris and his dreams." In 1986, McCandless graduated from

W.T. Woodson High School Wilbert Tucker Woodson High School, commonly known as W.T. Woodson High School or simply Woodson, is a high school located in Fairfax County, Virginia, in the east end of the city of Fairfax, opposite the shopping center on Main Street. The sc ...

Fairfax, Virginia The City of Fairfax ( ), colloquially known as Fairfax City, Downtown Fairfax, Old Town Fairfax, Fairfax Courthouse, FFX, or simply Fairfax, is an independent city (United States), independent city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth ...

. He excelled academically, although a number of teachers and fellow students observed that he "marched to the beat of a different drummer." McCandless also served as captain of the cross-country team, where he would urge teammates to treat running as a spiritual exercise in which they were "running against the forces of darkness ... all the evil in the world, all the hatred." McCandless travelled to

Southern California Southern California (commonly shortened to SoCal) is a geographic and cultural region that generally comprises the southern portion of the U.S. state of California. It includes the Los Angeles metropolitan area, the second most populous urban a ...

and reconnected with relatives and friends in the summer of 1986. While there McCandless learned that his father had lived for a time in a bigamous union with his second wife; he had also fathered a child with his first wife after the birth of his children by his second wife.

speculated that this discovery may have had a profound impact on McCandless. McCandless graduated from

in May 1990 with a

bachelor's degree A bachelor's degree (from Middle Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six ...

in the double majors of

history History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...

and

anthropology Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including past human species. Social anthropology studies patterns of be ...

. McCandless was an academic high achiever. After graduating, he donated his college savings of over $24,000 (approximately $ in ) to Oxfam and adopted a

vagabond Vagrancy is the condition of homelessness without regular employment or income. Vagrants (also known as bums, vagabonds, rogues, tramps or drifters) usually live in poverty and support themselves by begging, scavenging, petty theft, temporar ...

lifestyle, working when necessary as a restaurant food preparer and farm-hand. An avid outdoorsman, McCandless completed several lengthy wilderness hiking trips and paddled a canoe down a portion of the

Colorado River The Colorado River ( es, Río Colorado) is one of the principal rivers (along with the Rio Grande) in the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The river drains an expansive, arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U.S. s ...

before hitchhiking to

in April 1992.

Personal life

McCandless held a particular interest in classic literature. According to Krakauer, some of his favorite writers were

, Mark Twain,

Leo Tolstoy Count Lev Nikolayevich TolstoyTolstoy pronounced his first name as , which corresponds to the romanization ''Lyov''. () (; russian: link=no, Лев Николаевич Толстой,In Tolstoy's day, his name was written as in pre-refor ...

and

H. G. Wells Herbert George Wells"Wells, H. G."
Revised 18 May 2015. ''

He was also heavily influenced by 19th-century American writer and naturalist Henry David Thoreau and was engrossed by his essay ''On the Duty of Civil Disobedience''. McCandless highlighted a section on

chastity Chastity, also known as purity, is a virtue related to temperance. Someone who is ''chaste'' refrains either from sexual activity considered immoral or any sexual activity, according to their state of life. In some contexts, for example when ma ...

in Thoreau's ''

Walden ''Walden'' (; first published in 1854 as ''Walden; or, Life in the Woods'') is a book by American transcendentalist writer Henry David Thoreau. The text is a reflection upon the author's simple living in natural surroundings. The work is part ...

'', which has raised questions regarding his sexuality. There is no indication of McCandless having any romantic partners throughout his life and he is believed to have remained

celibate Celibacy (from Latin ''caelibatus'') is the state of voluntarily being unmarried, sexually abstinent, or both, usually for religious reasons. It is often in association with the role of a religious official or devotee. In its narrow sense, th ...

, although his sister Carine recalls how one night as a teenager McCandless drunkenly attempted to bring a girl up to his room which awakened his mother Billie who sent the girl home. While staying in Niland Slabs, a seventeen-year-old named Tracy pursued McCandless romantically; however, McCandless rejected her advances. Wayne Westerburg recalls McCandless stating that he hoped to get married and have a family in his future.

Travels

McCandless left Virginia in the summer of 1990, driving a

Datsun Datsun (, ) was an automobile brand owned by Nissan. Datsun's original production run began in 1931. From 1958 to 1986, only vehicles exported by Nissan were identified as Datsun. Nissan phased out the Datsun brand in March 1986, but relaunche ...

west in an apparent cross country trip to California. His car was not in good condition and suffered numerous breakdowns as he made his way out of the eastern United States. He also carried no car insurance on the vehicle and was driving with expired

license plate A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate (British English), license plate (American English), or licence plate (Canadian English), is a metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identificatio ...

s. By the end of the summer, McCandless had reached the

Lake Mead National Recreation Area Lake Mead National Recreation Area is a U.S. national recreation area in southeastern Nevada and northwestern Arizona. Operated by the National Park Service, Lake Mead NRA follows the Colorado River corridor from the westernmost boundary of Gra ...

, where a flash flood disabled his car. Fearful of fines or possibly even arrest due to lack of a valid license, registration and insurance, McCandless removed the car's license plates, took what he could carry, and kept moving on foot. His car was later found, repaired, and put into service as an undercover vehicle for the local police department. Traveling northwest, McCandless then hitchhiked into the Sierra Nevada mountains, where he broke into a closed cabin to steal food, supplies, and money. Throughout the winter of 1990, and in 1991, McCandless appears to have lived in

hermit A hermit, also known as an eremite (adjectival form: hermitic or eremitic) or solitary, is a person who lives in seclusion. Eremitism plays a role in a variety of religions. Description In Christianity, the term was originally applied to a Ch ...

camps with other vagrants in the Sierra Nevada region. He was suspected of burglarizing other cabins when food and money ran low, but only one case was ever positively confirmed by authorities after his death.

Mexico and arrest

In early 1991, McCandless left the Sierra Nevada and hitchhiked in a circular course south through California, into

Arizona Arizona ( ; nv, Hoozdo Hahoodzo ; ood, Alĭ ṣonak ) is a state in the Southwestern United States. It is the 6th largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is part of the Fou ...

, and then north to

South Dakota South Dakota (; Sioux: , ) is a U.S. state in the North Central region of the United States. It is also part of the Great Plains. South Dakota is named after the Lakota and Dakota Sioux Native American tribes, who comprise a large porti ...

. Completely out of cash with no means to support himself, he obtained a job as a grain elevator operator in Carthage, South Dakota. He worked at this job for the remainder of 1991, until one day suddenly quitting and leaving his supervisor a postcard which read: :"''Tramping is too easy with all this money. My days were more exciting when I was penniless and had to forage around for my next meal ... I've decided that I'm going to live this life for some time to come.''" McCandless then headed to Colorado, where he used money from his job to buy kayak supplies as well as a handgun. He then navigated the Colorado River, without a permit, and was occasionally pursued by wildlife and park rangers who had heard of his exploits from other river travelers, several of whom had been concerned that McCandless had been seen

white water rafting Rafting and whitewater rafting are recreational outdoor activities which use an inflatable raft to navigate a river or other body of water. This is often done on whitewater or different degrees of rough water. Dealing with risk is often a ...

in dangerous areas of the river with no safety equipment. In all, reports of McCandless were received at

Lake Havasu Lake Havasu () is a large reservoir formed by Parker Dam on the Colorado River, on the border between San Bernardino County, California and Mohave County, Arizona, Arizona. Lake Havasu City sits on the Arizona (eastern) side of the lake with its ...

Bill Williams River The Bill Williams River is a river in west-central Arizona where it, along with one of its tributaries, the Santa Maria River, form the boundary between Mohave County to the north and La Paz County to the south.''Arizona Atlas & Gazetteer,'' D ...

, the Colorado River Reservoir,

Cibola National Wildlife Refuge Cibola National Wildlife Refuge is a U.S. National Wildlife Refuge in the floodplain of the lower Colorado River between Arizona and California and surrounded by a fringe of desert ridges and washes. The refuge encompasses both the historic Colorad ...

, Imperial National Wildlife Refuge and

Yuma Proving Ground Yuma Proving Ground (YPG) is a United States Army series of environmentally specific test centers with its Yuma Test Center being one of the largest military installations in the world. It is subordinate to the U.S. Army Test and Evaluation ...

. The authorities attempted, but never succeeded, in locating McCandless, who was wanted due to his lack of proper river training as well as kayaking on the river without a valid boating license. McCandless eventually followed the Colorado River all the way to Mexico, where he crossed the international border through a

spillway A spillway is a structure used to provide the controlled release of water downstream from a dam or levee, typically into the riverbed of the dammed river itself. In the United Kingdom, they may be known as overflow channels. Spillways ensure th ...

at the

Morelos Dam After a 1944 United States Mexico Treaty the Morelos Dam was built in 1950 across the Colorado River. It is located about below the junction of the California border and the Colorado River between the town of Los Algodones, Baja California, in ...

. After encountering waterfalls, through which he could no longer navigate in a canoe, McCandless abandoned his river journey and spent a few days alone at the village of El Golfo de Santa Clara (), in the state of Sonora. Finding Mexico intimidating, with no way to support himself, he attempted to re-enter the U.S. and was arrested for carrying a firearm at a border checkpoint. McCandless was briefly held in custody but released without charges after his gun was confiscated. Following this experience in Mexico, McCandless began hitchhiking north, eventually winding up back in South Dakota.

Alaska

In April 1992, McCandless hitchhiked from South Dakota to

Fairbanks, Alaska Fairbanks is a home rule city and the borough seat of the Fairbanks North Star Borough in the U.S. state of Alaska. Fairbanks is the largest city in the Interior region of Alaska and the second largest in the state. The 2020 Census put the p ...

. After his death, witnesses stated they had seen McCandless in Alaska first at Dot Lake, with several other sightings in Fairbanks. McCandless was stated to be traveling with a "big backpack" and would give a false name if asked his identity. He was described as very suspicious of people around him, unkempt, and smelling due to lack of hygiene. One witness described McCandless as "generally strange, weird, with a weird energy". McCandless was then last seen alive at the head of the Stampede Trail on April 28 by a local electrician named Jim Gallien. Gallien, who had given McCandless a ride from Fairbanks to the start of the rugged track just outside the small town of Healy, later said he had been seriously concerned about the safety of McCandless (who introduced himself as "Alex") after noticing his light pack, minimal equipment, meager rations, and obvious lack of experience. Gallien said he had deep doubts about "Alex's" ability to survive the harsh and unforgiving Alaskan bush. Gallien tried repeatedly to persuade McCandless to delay the trip, at one point offering to detour to Anchorage and buy him suitable equipment and supplies. However, McCandless ignored Gallien's persistent warnings and refused his offers of assistance (though he did accept a pair of Xtratufs, two sandwiches, and a packet of corn chips from Gallien). Gallien dropped McCandless off believing he would head back towards the highway within a few days as hunger set in. After hiking along the snow-covered Stampede Trail, McCandless came upon an abandoned bus (about west of Healy at ) alongside an overgrown section of the trail near

Denali National Park Denali National Park and Preserve, formerly known as Mount McKinley National Park, is an American national park and preserve located in Interior Alaska, centered on Denali, the highest mountain in North America. The park and contiguous preserve ...

. McCandless, according to Krakauer, attempted to continue "heading west until ehit the Bering Sea." However, he was deterred by the thick Alaskan bush and returned to the bus, where he set up camp and lived off the land. He had of rice; a

Remington Nylon 66 The Remington Nylon 66 was a rifle manufactured by Remington Arms from 1959 to 1989. It was one of the earliest mass-produced rifles to feature a stock made from a material other than wood. Previously the 22-410 Stevens combination gun had been o ...

semi-automatic rifle A semi-automatic rifle is an autoloading rifle that fires a single cartridge with each pull of the trigger, and uses part of the fired cartridge's energy to eject the case and load another cartridge into the chamber. For comparison, a bolt-a ...

with 400 rounds of

.22LR The .22 Long Rifle or simply .22 LR or 22 (metric designation: 5.6×15mmR) is a long-established variety of .22 caliber rimfire ammunition originating from the United States. It is used in a wide range of rifles, pistols, revolvers, smoothb ...

hollowpoint upright=0.2, Cross-section of a hollow-point bullet; proportions are those of a .22 Long Rifle cartridge Jacketed soft point (JSP) round. Right: Jacketed hollow-point (JHP) round. JSP is a semi-jacketed round as the jacket does not extend to ...

ammunition; a number of books, including one on local plant life; some personal effects and a few items of camping equipment. Self-portrait photographs and journal entries indicate he foraged for edible plants and hunted game including porcupines, squirrels, and birds such as

ptarmigan ''Lagopus'' is a small genus of birds in the grouse subfamily commonly known as ptarmigans (). The genus contains three living species with numerous described subspecies, all living in tundra or cold upland areas. Taxonomy and etymology The ge ...

s and

Canada geese The Canada goose (''Branta canadensis''), or Canadian goose, is a large wild goose with a black head and neck, white cheeks, white under its chin, and a brown body. It is native to the arctic and temperate regions of North America, and it is o ...

. On June 9, 1992, McCandless illegally stalked and shot a

moose The moose (in North America) or elk (in Eurasia) (''Alces alces'') is a member of the New World deer subfamily and is the only species in the genus ''Alces''. It is the largest and heaviest extant species in the deer family. Most adult ma ...

. However, the meat spoiled within days after he failed in his efforts to preserve it. It had been speculated that McCandless was responsible for vandalizing several cabins in the area that were stocked with food, survival equipment, and emergency supplies. In response, Denali National Park Chief Ranger Ken Kehrer has categorically stated that McCandless was not considered a viable suspect by the

National Park Service The National Park Service (NPS) is an agency of the United States federal government within the U.S. Department of the Interior that manages all national parks, most national monuments, and other natural, historical, and recreational propert ...

. McCandless's journal documents 113 days in the area. In July, after living in the bus for a little over two months, he decided to head back to civilization, but the trail was blocked by the impassable Teklanika River swollen with late-summer runoff from the

Cantwell Glacier Cantwell Glacier is a glacier in Denali National Park and Preserve in the U.S. state of Alaska Alaska ( ; russian: Аляска, Alyaska; ale, Alax̂sxax̂; ; ems, Alas'kaaq; Yup'ik: ''Alaskaq''; tli, Anáaski) is a state located in the ...

; the watercourse by that stage was considerably higher and swifter than when he had crossed in April. McCandless did not have a detailed

topographical Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area may refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps. Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary sc ...

map of the region and was unaware of the existence of an abandoned, hand-operated cable car that crossed the river downstream from where he had previously crossed. At this point, McCandless headed back to the bus and re-established his camp. He posted an S.O.S. note on the bus stating:

Death

McCandless's final written journal entry, noted as "Day 107", simply read, "BEAUTIFUL BLUE BERRIES." Days 108 through 112 contained no words and were marked only with slashes, and on Day 113 there was no entry. The exact date and time of his death are unknown. Near the time of his death, McCandless took a picture of himself waving while holding a written note, which read: On September 6, 1992, a group of hunters who were looking for shelter for the night came upon the converted bus where McCandless had been staying. Upon entering, they smelled what they thought was rotting food and discovered "a lump" in a sleeping bag in the back of the bus. The hunters radioed police, who arrived the following day. They found McCandless's

remains in the sleeping bag. It is theorized that he died from starvation approximately two weeks before his body was found.

Theories of starvation

Rabbit starvation

In his book '' Into the Wild'' (1996), Jon Krakauer proposes two factors which may have contributed to McCandless's death. One of these factors include McCandless running the risk of " rabbit starvation", from over-relying on lean meat for nutrition.

Swainsonine in ''Hedysarum alpinum'' seeds

Krakauer also speculated that McCandless might have been poisoned by a toxic

alkaloid Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar ...

called swainsonine, after eating sweet-vetch seeds ('' Hedysarum alpinum'' or '' Hedysarum mackenzii'') containing the toxin, or possibly by a mold that can grow on them, when he put them into a plastic bag. Swainsonine inhibits the

metabolism Metabolism (, from el, μεταβολή ''metabolē'', "change") is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms. The three main functions of metabolism are: the conversion of the energy in food to energy available to run c ...

of glycoproteins, which leads to starvation despite ample food consumption. However, in an article in the September 2007 issue of '' Men's Journal'', correspondent

Matthew Power Matthew "Matt" Power (October 22, 1974 – March 10, 2014) was an American journalist. Early life and education Power was born October 22, 1974, in Middlebury, Vermont and grew up in nearby Cornwall. His mother was Jane Steele. His father was Jo ...

states that extensive laboratory testing showed there were no toxins or alkaloids present in the sweet-vetch seeds McCandless had been eating. Thomas Clausen, then head of the chemistry and biochemistry department at

University of Alaska Fairbanks The University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF or Alaska) is a public land-grant research university in College, Alaska, a suburb of Fairbanks. It is the flagship campus of the University of Alaska system. UAF was established in 1917 and opened for c ...

, said, "I tore that plant apart. There were no toxins. No alkaloids. I'd eat it myself.". '' Men's Journal'', September 2007. Retrieved Jan 03, 2011 Further, there are no accounts in modern medical literature of a person being poisoned by this species of plant. Power argued that McCandless "couldn't catch enough food to survive, and simply starved to death".

Lathyrism due to ODAP in ''Hedysarum alpinum'' seeds

In 2013, a new hypothesis was proposed. Ronald Hamilton, a retired bookbinder at the

Indiana University of Pennsylvania Indiana University of Pennsylvania (IUP) is a public research university in Indiana County, Pennsylvania. As of fall 2021, the university enrolled 7,044 undergraduates and 1,865 postgraduates, for a total enrollment of 9,009 students. The univ ...

, suggested a link between the symptoms described by McCandless and the poisoning of Jewish prisoners in the

concentration camp Internment is the imprisonment of people, commonly in large groups, without charges or intent to file charges. The term is especially used for the confinement "of enemy citizens in wartime or of terrorism suspects". Thus, while it can simpl ...

at Vapniarca. He put forward the proposal that McCandless starved to death because he was suffering from paralysis in his legs induced by lathyrism, which prevented him from gathering food or hiking. Lathyrism may be caused by

oxalyldiaminopropionic acid Oxalyldiaminopropionic acid (ODAP) is a structural analogue of the neurotransmitter glutamate found in the grass pea ''Lathyrus sativus''. It is the neurotoxin responsible for the motor neuron degeneration syndrome lathyrism. Sources ODAP is ...

(ODAP) poisoning from seeds of '' Hedysarum alpinum'' (commonly called wild potato). The ODAP, a toxic

amino acid Amino acids are organic compounds that contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. Although hundreds of amino acids exist in nature, by far the most important are the alpha-amino acids, which comprise proteins. Only 22 alpha a ...

, had not been detected by Clausen's previous studies of the seeds because he had suspected and tested for a toxic

, rather than an amino acid, as no scientist had previously suspected that ''Hedysarum alpinum'' seeds contained this toxin. The protein would be relatively harmless to someone who was well-nourished, with access to a normal diet, but would be toxic to someone who was

malnourished Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems. Specifically, it is "a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients" which adversely affects the body's tissues ...

, physically stressed, and on an irregular and insufficient diet, as McCandless was. As Krakauer points out, McCandless's field guide did not warn of any dangers of eating the seeds, which were not known to be toxic when the guide was published. Krakauer suspects this is the meaning of McCandless's journal entry of July 30, which states, "EXTREMELY WEAK. FAULT OF POT TOSEED. MUCH TROUBLE JUST TO STAND UP. STARVING. GREAT JEOPARDY." In September 2013, Krakauer published an article in ''

The New Yorker ''The New Yorker'' is an American weekly magazine featuring journalism, commentary, criticism, essays, fiction, satire, cartoons, and poetry. Founded as a weekly in 1925, the magazine is published 47 times annually, with five of these issues ...

'' following up on Hamilton's claims. A sample of fresh ''Hedysarum alpinum'' seeds was sent to a laboratory for HPLC analysis. Results showed that the seeds contained 0.394% beta-ODAP by weight, a concentration well within the levels known to cause lathyrism in humans, although the interpretation of the results has been disputed by other chemists. The article notes that while occasional ingestion of foodstuffs containing ODAP is not hazardous for healthy individuals eating a balanced diet, "individuals suffering from

malnutrition Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems. Specifically, it is "a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients" which adversely affects the body's tissues ...

, stress, and acute hunger are especially sensitive to ODAP, and are thus highly susceptible to the incapacitating effects of lathyrism after ingesting the neurotoxin".

L-canavanine in ''Hedysarum alpinum'' seeds

In March 2015, Krakauer co-authored a scientific analysis of the ''Hedysarum alpinum'' seeds McCandless ate. Instead of ODAP, the report found relatively high levels of L- canavanine (an

antimetabolite An antimetabolite is a chemical that inhibits the use of a metabolite, which is another chemical that is part of normal metabolism. Such substances are often similar in structure to the metabolite that they interfere with, such as the antifolate ...

toxic to mammals) in the ''H. alpinum'' seeds and concluded "it is highly likely that the consumption of H. alpinum seeds contributed to the death of Chris McCandless."Krakauer, J., et al. (2015). "Presence of l-canavanine in Hedysarum alpinum seeds and its potential role in the death of Chris McCandless." Wilderness & Environmental Medicine.

Legacy

The converted green and white bus where McCandless lived and died became a well-known destination for hikers. Known as "The Magic Bus", the 1946

International Harvester The International Harvester Company (often abbreviated by IHC, IH, or simply International ( colloq.)) was an American manufacturer of agricultural and construction equipment, automobiles, commercial trucks, lawn and garden products, household e ...

was abandoned by road workers in 1961 on the Stampede Trail. A plaque in McCandless's memory was affixed to the interior by his father, Walt McCandless. McCandless's life became the subject of a number of articles, books, films, and documentaries, which helped elevate his life to the status of modern myth. He became a romantic figure to some inspired by what they see as his free-spirited

idealism In philosophy, the term idealism identifies and describes metaphysical perspectives which assert that reality is indistinguishable and inseparable from perception and understanding; that reality is a mental construct closely connected t ...

, but to others, he is a controversial, misguided figure. "The Magic Bus" became a pilgrimage destination for trekkers who would camp at the vehicle. Some of these experienced their own difficulties, or even died attempting to cross the Teklanika River. On June 18, 2020, various government agencies coordinated with an

Alaska Army National Guard The Alaska Army National Guard is a component of the United States Army and the Alaska Department of Military and Veterans Affairs. Along with the Alaska Air National Guard, it makes up the Alaska National Guard. Alaska Army National Guard units ...

training mission to finally remove the bus, deemed a public safety issue after at least fifteen people had to be rescued, and at least two people died while attempting to cross the Teklanika River to reach the bus. It was flown via

CH-47 Chinook The Boeing CH-47 Chinook is a tandem rotor helicopter developed by American rotorcraft company Vertol and manufactured by Boeing Vertol. The Chinook is a heavy-lift helicopter that is among the heaviest lifting Western helicopters. Its name, C ...

helicopter to Healy, then via flatbed truck to an undisclosed location. On September 24, the Museum of the North at the

announced it became the permanent home of McCandless's 'Magic Bus 142' where it will be restored and an outdoor exhibit will be created.

Assessments

McCandless has been a polarizing figure since his story came to widespread public attention with the publication of Krakauer's January 1993 ''Outside'' article. While the author and many others have a sympathetic view of the young traveler, others, particularly Alaskans, have expressed negative views about McCandless and those who romanticize his fate. George Mason University English Department. Text and Community website. Christian, Peter
Chris McCandless from a Park Ranger's Perspective
Retrieved August 26, 2007. Alaskan Park Ranger Peter Christian wrote:

When you consider McCandless from my perspective, you quickly see that what he did wasn't even particularly daring, just stupid, tragic, and inconsiderate. First off, he spent very little time learning how to actually live in the wild. He arrived at the Stampede Trail without even a map of the area. If he adhad a good map he could have walked out of his predicament ..Essentially, Chris McCandless committed suicide.

Ken Ilgunas, also an Alaskan Park Ranger and the author of ''The McCandless Mecca'', wrote in response:

Before I go any further, I should say that Pete is a really good guy ..But with that said, I think Pete is very, very wrong. ..Because I am in the unique position as both an Alaskan park ranger and a person who is, in many ways, like Chris McCandless, I feel I can speak with some authority on the subject. ..McCandless, of course, did not commit suicide. He starved to death, accidentally poisoned himself, or a combination of the two.

Sherry Simpson, writing in the ''

Anchorage Press The ''Anchorage Press'' is a free alternative weekly newspaper based in Anchorage, Alaska and owned by Wick Communications. Established in 1992 by Bill Boulay, Barry Bialik, and Nick Coltman as the ''Anchorage Bypass'', it was renamed the ''An ...

'', described her trip to the bus with a friend, and their reaction upon reading the comments that tourists had left lauding McCandless as an insightful,

Thoreau Henry David Thoreau (July 12, 1817May 6, 1862) was an American naturalist, essayist, poet, and philosopher. A leading transcendentalist, he is best known for his book ''Walden'', a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and hi ...

-like figure:

Among my friends and acquaintances, the story of Christopher McCandless makes great after-dinner conversation. Much of the time I agree with the "he had a death wish" camp because I don't know how else to reconcile what we know of his ordeal. Now and then I venture into the "what a dumbshit" territory, tempered by brief alliances with the "he was just another romantic boy on an all-American quest" partisans. Mostly I'm puzzled by the way he's emerged as a hero.

Krakauer defends McCandless, claiming that what critics point to as arrogance was merely McCandless's desire for "being the first to explore a blank spot on the map." He continues: "In 1992, however, there were no more blank spots on the map—not in Alaska, not anywhere. But Chris, with his idiosyncratic logic, came up with an elegant solution to this dilemma: He simply got rid of the map. In his own mind, if nowhere else, the ''terra'' would thereby remain ''incognita''."

In popular culture

Krakauer's approximately 9,000-word article "Death of an Innocent" (January 1993) was published in '' Outside''. Chip Brown's full-length article on McCandless, "I Now Walk Into the Wild" (February 8, 1993), was published in ''The New Yorker''. Jon Krakauer's non-fiction book '' Into the Wild'' (1996) expands upon his 1993 ''Outside'' article and retraces McCandless's travels leading up to the hiker's eventual death. McCandless's story was adapted by screenwriter Chip Johannessen into a 1998 episode of Chris Carter's television series ''

Millennium A millennium (plural millennia or millenniums) is a period of one thousand years, sometimes called a kiloannum (ka), or kiloyear (ky). Normally, the word is used specifically for periods of a thousand years that begin at the starting point (ini ...

'', titled "Luminary." An eponymous 2007 film adaptation of ''Into the Wild'', directed by

with

portraying McCandless, received a number of awards, including Best Picture from the American Film Institute. Ron Lamothe's documentary ''

'' (2007) also covers McCandless's life story. The book ''Back to the Wild'' (2011) compiles photographs, postcards and journal entries by McCandless. A

PBS The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) is an American public broadcaster and non-commercial, free-to-air television network based in Arlington, Virginia. PBS is a publicly funded nonprofit organization and the most prominent provider of educat ...

documentary uncovering some additional information, with interviews, titled ''Return to the Wild: The Chris McCandless Story'', first aired on the PBS network in November 2014.

References

External links

*
ChristopherMcCandless.info
Website on Christopher McCandless.
Chrisspurpose.org
Christopher Johnson McCandless Memorial Foundation
Dispatches from the Wild
Excerpts of McCandless's own articles published in the ''Emory Wheel'' student newspaper. * ''The Wild Truth'' b
Carine McCandless
, detailing what growing-up in the McCandless household was like. * ''The Call of the Wild'', a 2007 documentary about McCandless made by Ron Lamothe. * ''Vagabond'', a 1985 French film that deals with a similar theme {{DEFAULTSORT:McCandless, Christopher 1968 births 1992 deaths 20th-century American people Accidental deaths in Alaska American nomads Deaths by starvation Emory University alumni Hikers Squatters People from Annandale, Virginia People from Los Angeles People from El Segundo, California Wilbert Tucker Woodson High School alumni