palm (plant)
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The Arecaceae is a
family Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...
of
perennial A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wide ...
flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...
s in the
monocot Monocotyledons (), commonly referred to as monocots, (Lilianae ''sensu'' Chase & Reveal) are grass and grass-like flowering plants (angiosperms), the seeds of which typically contain only one embryonic leaf, or cotyledon. They constitute one of ...
order
Arecales Arecales is an order of flowering plants. The order has been widely recognised only for the past few decades; until then, the accepted name for the order including these plants was Principes. Taxonomy The APG IV system of 2016 places Dasypogo ...
. Their growth form can be climbers,
shrubs A shrub (often also called a bush) is a small-to-medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees ...
,
tree In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are ...
-like and stemless plants, all commonly known as palms. Those having a tree-like form are called palm trees. Currently, 181
genera Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nomenclat ...
with around 2,600
species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...
are known, most of which are restricted to
tropical The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...
and
subtropical The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical zone, geographical and Köppen climate classification, climate zones to the Northern Hemisphere, north and Southern Hemisphere, south of the tropics. Geographically part of the Geographical z ...
climates. Most palms are distinguished by their large, compound,
evergreen In botany, an evergreen is a plant which has foliage that remains green and functional through more than one growing season. This also pertains to plants that retain their foliage only in warm climates, and contrasts with deciduous plants, which ...
leaves, known as
fronds A frond is a large, divided leaf. In both common usage and botanical nomenclature, the leaves of ferns are referred to as fronds and some botanists restrict the term to this group. Other botanists allow the term frond to also apply to the lar ...
, arranged at the top of an unbranched stem. However, palms exhibit an enormous diversity in physical characteristics and inhabit nearly every type of
habitat In ecology, the term habitat summarises the array of resources, physical and biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species habitat can be seen as the physical ...
within their range, from
rainforest Rainforests are characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy, moisture-dependent vegetation, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. Rainforest can be classified as tropical rainforest or temperate rainfores ...
s to
desert A desert is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to denudation. About on ...
s. Palms are among the best known and most extensively cultivated plant families. They have been important to humans throughout much of history. Many common products and foods are derived from palms. In contemporary times, palms are also widely used in landscaping. In many historical cultures, because of their importance as food, palms were
symbols A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different conc ...
for such ideas as victory, peace, and fertility.


Etymology

The word ''Arecaceae'' is derived from the word ''
areca ''Areca'' is a genus of 51 species of palms in the family Arecaceae, found in humid tropical forests from the islands of the Philippines, Malaysia and India, across Southeast Asia to Melanesia. The generic name ''Areca'' is derived from a name u ...
'' with the suffix "-aceae". ''Areca'' is derived from
Portuguese Portuguese may refer to: * anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal ** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods ** Portuguese language, a Romance language *** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language ** Portu ...
, via
Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India. Malayalam was des ...
അടയ്ക്ക (''aṭaykka''), which is from Dravidian ''*aṭ-ay-kkāy'' (“areca nut”). The suffix ''-aceae'' is the feminine plural of the Latin ''-āceus'' ("resembling").


Morphology

Whether as shrubs, tree-like, or vines, palms have two methods of growth: solitary or clustered. The common representation is that of a solitary shoot ending in a crown of leaves. This
monopodial Vascular plants with monopodial growth habits grow upward from a single point. They add leaves to the apex each year and the stem grows longer accordingly. The word ''Monopodial'' is derived from Greek "mono-", ''one'' and "podial", "foot", in refe ...
character may be exhibited by prostrate, trunkless, and trunk-forming members. Some common palms restricted to solitary growth include ''
Washingtonia ''Washingtonia'' is a genus of palms, native to the southwestern United States (in southern California, and southwest Arizona) and northwest Mexico (in Baja California and Sonora). Both ''Washingtonia'' species are commonly cultivated across t ...
'' and ''
Roystonea ''Roystonea'' is a genus of eleven species of monoecious palms, native to the Caribbean Islands, and the adjacent coasts of the United States (Florida), Central America and northern South America. Commonly known as the royal palms, the genus ...
''. Palms may instead grow in sparse though dense clusters. The trunk develops an axillary bud at a leaf node, usually near the base, from which a new shoot emerges. The new shoot, in turn, produces an axillary bud and a clustering habit results. Exclusively
sympodial Sympodial growth is a bifurcating branching pattern where one branch develops more strongly than the other, resulting in the stronger branches forming the primary shoot and the weaker branches appearing laterally. A sympodium, also referred to a ...
genera include many of the
rattan Rattan, also spelled ratan, is the name for roughly 600 species of Old World climbing palms belonging to subfamily Calamoideae. The greatest diversity of rattan palm species and genera are in the closed-canopy old-growth tropical forests of ...
s, ''
Guihaia ''Guihaia'' is a genus of three species of dioecious Arecaceae, palms found in China and Vietnam.J.Dransf., S.K.Lee & F.N.Wei. 1985. Principes 29: 7-12 Perhaps its most distinctive characteristic is that it is the only palm with Palmately compoun ...
'', and ''
Rhapis ''Rhapis'' is a genus of about 10 species of small palms native to southeastern Asia from southern Japan and southern China south to Sumatra. The species are commonly known as lady palms. They are fan palms Fan palm as a descriptive term ...
''. Several palm genera have both solitary and clustering members. Palms which are usually solitary may grow in clusters and vice versa. These aberrations suggest the habit operates on a single gene. Palms have large, evergreen leaves that are either palmately ('fan-leaved') or pinnately ('feather-leaved') compound and spirally arranged at the top of the stem. The leaves have a tubular sheath at the base that usually splits open on one side at maturity. The
inflorescence An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed o ...
is a spadix or
spike Spike, spikes, or spiking may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Books * ''The Spike'' (novel), a novel by Arnaud de Borchgrave * ''The Spike'' (book), a nonfiction book by Damien Broderick * ''The Spike'', a starship in Peter F. Hamilto ...
surrounded by one or more
bract In botany, a bract is a modified or specialized leaf, especially one associated with a reproductive structure such as a flower, inflorescence axis or cone scale. Bracts are usually different from foliage leaves. They may be smaller, larger, or of ...
s or
spathe In botany, a bract is a modified or specialized leaf, especially one associated with a reproductive structure such as a flower, inflorescence axis or cone scale. Bracts are usually different from foliage leaves. They may be smaller, larger, or of ...
s that become woody at maturity. The
flower A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechani ...
s are generally small and white, radially symmetric, and can be either uni- or bisexual. The sepals and petals usually number three each, and may be distinct or joined at the base. The stamens generally number six, with filaments that may be separate, attached to each other, or attached to the pistil at the base. The
fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particu ...
is usually a single-
seed A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiospe ...
ed
drupe In botany, a drupe (or stone fruit) is an indehiscent fruit in which an outer fleshy part (exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh) surrounds a single shell (the ''pit'', ''stone'', or '' pyrena'') of hardened endocarp with a seed (''kernel'') ...
(sometimes berry-like) but some genera (e.g., ''
Salacca ''Salacca'' is a genus of about 20 species of palms native to Southeast Asia and the eastern Himalayas. They are dioecious (with the exception of Salak Bali) and pollinated by Curculionidae beetles. They are very short-stemmed palms, with leave ...
'') may contain two or more seeds in each fruit. Like all
monocot Monocotyledons (), commonly referred to as monocots, (Lilianae ''sensu'' Chase & Reveal) are grass and grass-like flowering plants (angiosperms), the seeds of which typically contain only one embryonic leaf, or cotyledon. They constitute one of ...
s, palms do not have the ability to increase the width of a stem (
secondary growth In botany, secondary growth is the growth that results from cell division in the cambia or lateral meristems and that causes the stems and roots to thicken, while primary growth is growth that occurs as a result of cell division at the tips of ...
) via the same kind of
vascular cambium The vascular cambium is the main growth tissue in the stems and roots of many plants, specifically in dicots such as buttercups and oak trees, gymnosperms such as pine trees, as well as in certain other vascular plants. It produces secondary xyle ...
found in non-monocot
woody plant A woody plant is a plant that produces wood as its structural tissue and thus has a hard stem. In cold climates, woody plants further survive winter or dry season above ground, as opposite to herbaceous plants that die back to the ground until sp ...
s. This explains the cylindrical shape of the trunk (almost constant diameter) that is often seen in palms, unlike in
ring Ring may refer to: * Ring (jewellery), a round band, usually made of metal, worn as ornamental jewelry * To make a sound with a bell, and the sound made by a bell :(hence) to initiate a telephone connection Arts, entertainment and media Film and ...
-forming trees. However, many palms, like some other monocots, do have secondary growth, although because it does not arise from a single vascular cambium producing
xylem Xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue in vascular plants, the other being phloem. The basic function of xylem is to transport water from roots to stems and leaves, but it also transports nutrients. The word ''xylem'' is derived from ...
inwards and phloem outwards, it is often called "anomalous secondary growth". The Arecaceae are notable among monocots for their height and for the size of their seeds, leaves, and inflorescences. ''
Ceroxylon quindiuense ''Ceroxylon quindiuense'', often called Quindío wax palm, is a palm native to the humid montane forests of the Andes in Colombia and northern Peru. Description This palm species can grow to a height of —or rarely, even as high as . It i ...
'', Colombia's national tree, is the tallest monocot in the world, reaching up to tall. The ''
coco de mer Coco commonly refers to: * Coco (folklore), a mythical bogeyman in many Hispano- and Lusophone nations Coco may also refer to: People * Coco (given name), a first name, its shorthand, or unrelated nickname * Coco (surname), a list of people w ...
'' (''Lodoicea maldivica'') has the largest seeds of any plant, in diameter and weighing each (
coconuts The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family ( Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the ...
are the second largest). Raffia palms ('' Raphia'' spp.) have the largest leaves of any plant, up to long and wide. The ''
Corypha ''Corypha'' (gebang palm, buri palm or talipot palm) is a genus of palms (family Arecaceae), native to India, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, New Guinea and northeastern Australia (Cape York Peninsula, Queensland). They are fan palms (su ...
'' species have the largest inflorescence of any plant, up to tall and containing millions of small flowers. ''
Calamus Calamus may refer to: Botany and zoology * ''Calamus'' (fish), a genus of fish in the family Sparidae * ''Calamus'' (palm), a genus of rattan palms * Calamus, the hollow shaft of a feather, also known as the quill * '' Acorus calamus'', the swe ...
'' stems can reach in length.


Range and habitat

Most palms are native to tropical and subtropical climates. Palms thrive in moist and hot climates but can be found in a variety of different habitats. Their diversity is highest in wet, lowland forests.
South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southe ...
, the
Caribbean The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Se ...
, and areas of the south Pacific and southern Asia are regions of concentration. Colombia may have the highest number of palm species in one country. There are some palms that are also native to desert areas such as the Arabian peninsula and parts of northwestern Mexico. Only about 130 palm species naturally grow entirely beyond the tropics, mostly in humid lowland subtropical climates, in highlands in southern Asia, and along the rim lands of the
Mediterranean Sea The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the ea ...
. The northernmost native palm is ''
Chamaerops humilis ''Chamaerops'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Arecaceae. The only currently fully accepted species is ''Chamaerops humilis'', variously called European fan palm or the Mediterranean dwarf palm. It is one of the most hardy palms, ...
'', which reaches 44°N latitude along the coast of
Liguria Liguria (; lij, Ligûria ; french: Ligurie) is a Regions of Italy, region of north-western Italy; its Capital city, capital is Genoa. Its territory is crossed by the Alps and the Apennine Mountains, Apennines Mountain chain, mountain range and is ...
,
Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...
. In the southern hemisphere, the southernmost palm is the ''
Rhopalostylis sapida ''Rhopalostylis sapida'', commonly known as nīkau ( mi, nīkau), is a palm tree endemic to New Zealand, and the only palm native to mainland New Zealand. Etymology is a Māori word; in the closely related Eastern Polynesian languages of the ...
'', which reaches 44°S on the
Chatham Islands The Chatham Islands ( ) (Moriori: ''Rēkohu'', 'Misty Sun'; mi, Wharekauri) are an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean about east of New Zealand's South Island. They are administered as part of New Zealand. The archipelago consists of about te ...
where an
oceanic climate An oceanic climate, also known as a marine climate, is the humid temperate climate sub-type in Köppen classification ''Cfb'', typical of west coasts in higher middle latitudes of continents, generally featuring cool summers and mild winters ( ...
prevails. Cultivation of palms is possible north of subtropical climates, and some higher latitude locales such as
Ireland Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Grea ...
,
Scotland Scotland (, ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a border with England to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the ...
,
England England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe b ...
, and the
Pacific Northwest The Pacific Northwest (sometimes Cascadia, or simply abbreviated as PNW) is a geographic region in western North America bounded by its coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains to the east. Though ...
feature a few palms in protected locations and
microclimate A microclimate (or micro-climate) is a local set of atmospheric conditions that differ from those in the surrounding areas, often with a slight difference but sometimes with a substantial one. The term may refer to areas as small as a few squ ...
s. In the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
, there are at least 12 native palm species, mostly occurring in the deep southeastern states and
Florida Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to ...
. Palms inhabit a variety of ecosystems. More than two-thirds of palm species live in humid moist forests, where some species grow tall enough to form part of the
canopy Canopy may refer to: Plants * Canopy (biology), aboveground portion of plant community or crop (including forests) * Canopy (grape), aboveground portion of grapes Religion and ceremonies * Baldachin or canopy of state, typically placed over an ...
and shorter ones form part of the
understory In forestry and ecology, understory (American English), or understorey (Commonwealth English), also known as underbrush or undergrowth, includes plant life growing beneath the forest canopy without penetrating it to any great extent, but abov ...
. Some species form pure stands in areas with poor drainage or regular flooding, including ''
Raphia hookeri ''Raphia hookeri'' is a palm species in the family Arecaceae or Palmae. It is found in Western and Central Africa, where it is locally used to make palm wine. It is best noted for its very long leaflets which in the subspecies R. h. gigantea, ...
'' which is common in coastal freshwater swamps in West Africa. Other palms live in tropical mountain habitats above , such as those in the genus ''
Ceroxylon ''Ceroxylon'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Arecaceae, native to the Andes in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, known as Andean wax palms.Govaerts, R. & Dransfield, J. (2005). World Checklist of Palms: 1-223. The Bo ...
'' native to the
Andes The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...
. Palms may also live in grasslands and scrublands, usually associated with a water source, and in desert oases such as the date palm. A few palms are adapted to extremely
basic BASIC (Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages designed for ease of use. The original version was created by John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz at Dartmouth College ...
lime Lime commonly refers to: * Lime (fruit), a green citrus fruit * Lime (material), inorganic materials containing calcium, usually calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide * Lime (color), a color between yellow and green Lime may also refer to: Botany ...
soils, while others are similarly adapted to extreme potassium deficiency and toxicity of heavy metals in
serpentine soil Serpentine soil is an uncommon soil type produced by weathered ultramafic rock such as peridotite and its metamorphic derivatives such as serpentinite. More precisely, serpentine soil contains minerals of the serpentine subgroup, especially anti ...
s. Palms are a
monophyletic In cladistics for a group of organisms, monophyly is the condition of being a clade—that is, a group of taxa composed only of a common ancestor (or more precisely an ancestral population) and all of its lineal descendants. Monophyletic gro ...
group of plants, meaning the group consists of a common ancestor and all its descendants. Extensive taxonomic research on palms began with botanist H.E. Moore, who organized palms into 15 major groups based mostly on general morphological characteristics. The following classification, proposed by N.W. Uhl and J. Dransfield in 1987, is a revision of Moore's classification that organizes palms into six subfamilies. A few general traits of each subfamily are listed below. * The are the most diverse subfamily, and are a
paraphyletic In taxonomy (general), taxonomy, a group is paraphyletic if it consists of the group's most recent common ancestor, last common ancestor and most of its descendants, excluding a few Monophyly, monophyletic subgroups. The group is said to be pa ...
group, meaning all members of the group share a common ancestor, but the group does not include all the ancestor's descendants. Most palms in this subfamily have palmately lobed leaves and solitary flowers with three, or sometimes four
carpel Gynoecium (; ) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of a flower; it consists of (one or more) ''pistils'' ...
s. The fruit normally develops from only one carpel. * Subfamily includes the climbing palms, such as rattans. The leaves are usually pinnate; derived characters (
synapomorphies In phylogenetics, an apomorphy (or derived trait) is a novel character or character state that has evolved from its ancestral form (or plesiomorphy). A synapomorphy is an apomorphy shared by two or more taxa and is therefore hypothesized to have ...
) include spines on various organs, organs specialized for climbing, an extension of the main stem of the leaf-bearing reflexed spines, and overlapping scales covering the fruit and ovary. * Subfamily contains only one species, ''
Nypa fruticans ''Nypa fruticans'', commonly known as the nipa palm (or simply nipa, from ms, nipah) or mangrove palm, is a species of palm native to the coastlines and estuarine habitats of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the only palm considered adapte ...
'', which has large, pinnate leaves. The fruit is unusual in that it floats, and the stem is dichotomously branched, also unusual in palms. * Subfamily has small to medium-sized flowers, spirally arranged, with a
gynoecium Gynoecium (; ) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of a flower; it consists of (one or more) ''pistils'' ...
of three joined carpels. * The are the largest subfamily, with six diverse tribes ( Areceae, Caryoteae,
Cocoseae Cocoseae is a tribe of cocosoid palms of the family Arecaceae. Description The fruit of the Cocoseae is a modified drupe, with a sclerenchymatous epicarp and a highly developed mesocarp, formed mainly by parenchyma . The endocarp is generally s ...
,
Geonomateae Geonomateae (also Geonomeae) is a palm tribe in the subfamily Arecoideae. It is an important Neotropical group due to its wide distribution across Central and South America, its diversity and abundance, and the use of a number of species by local ...
,
Iriarteeae Iriarteeae is a palm tribe in the subfamily Arecoideae. Genera Iriarteeae includes the following genera: *''Dictyocaryum'' *'' Iriartea'' *''Iriartella'' *'' Socratea'' *'' Wettinia'' See also * List of Arecaceae genera This is a list of a ...
, and
Podococceae ''Podococcus'' is a genus of palms found in tropical Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) includi ...
) containing over 100 genera. All tribes have pinnate or bipinnate leaves and flowers arranged in groups of three, with a central pistillate and two staminate flowers. * The are a
monoecious Monoecy (; adj. monoecious ) is a sexual system in seed plants where separate male and female cones or flowers are present on the same plant. It is a monomorphic sexual system alongside gynomonoecy, andromonoecy and trimonoecy. Monoecy is conne ...
subfamily. Members of this group have distinct monopodial flower clusters. Other distinct features include a gynoecium with five to 10 joined carpels, and flowers with more than three parts per whorl. Fruits are multiple-seeded and have multiple parts. Currently, few extensive phylogenetic studies of the Arecaceae exist. In 1997, Baker'' et al.'' explored subfamily and tribe relationships using chloroplast DNA from 60 genera from all subfamilies and tribes. The results strongly showed the Calamoideae are monophyletic, and Ceroxyloideae and Coryphoideae are paraphyletic. The relationships of Arecoideae are uncertain, but they are possibly related to the Ceroxyloideae and Phytelephantoideae. Studies have suggested the lack of a fully resolved hypothesis for the relationships within the family is due to a variety of factors, including difficulties in selecting appropriate outgroups,
homoplasy Homoplasy, in biology and phylogenetics, is the term used to describe a feature that has been gained or lost independently in separate lineages over the course of evolution. This is different from homology, which is the term used to characterize ...
in morphological character states, slow rates of molecular evolution important for the use of standard
DNA marker A genetic marker is a gene or DNA sequence with a known location on a chromosome that can be used to identify individuals or species. It can be described as a variation (which may arise due to mutation or alteration in the genomic loci) that can be ...
s, and character polarization. However, hybridization has been observed among ''Orbignya'' and ''Phoenix'' species, and using chloroplast DNA in cladistic studies may produce inaccurate results due to maternal inheritance of the chloroplast DNA. Chemical and molecular data from non-organelle DNA, for example, could be more effective for studying palm phylogeny.


Selected genera

*'' Archontophoenix''—
Bangalow palm ''Archontophoenix cunninghamiana'' (Bangalow palm, king palm, Illawara palm, ''piccabben'', ''piccabeen'') is an Australian palm. It can grow over 20 m tall. Its flower colour is violet and the red fruits are attractive to birds. It flowers i ...
*''
Areca ''Areca'' is a genus of 51 species of palms in the family Arecaceae, found in humid tropical forests from the islands of the Philippines, Malaysia and India, across Southeast Asia to Melanesia. The generic name ''Areca'' is derived from a name u ...
''— Betel palm *''
Astrocaryum ''Astrocaryum'' is a genus of about 36 to 40 species of palms native to Central and South America and Trinidad. Description ''Astrocaryum'' is a genus of spiny palms with pinnately compound leaves–rows of leaflets emerge on either side of th ...
'' *'' Attalea'' *''
Bactris ''Bactris'' is a genus of spiny palms which are native to Mexico, South and Central America and the Caribbean. Most species are small trees about tall, but some are large trees while others are shrubs with subterranean stems. They have simple o ...
''— Pupunha *'' Beccariophoenix''— Beccariophoenix alfredii *'' Bismarckia''—Bismarck palm *'' Borassus''—Palmyra palm,
sugar palm Sugar palm is a common name for several species of palms used to produce sugar. :Species used include: *''Arenga pinnata'' (syn. ''A. saccharifera'') *''Borassus flabellifer'' *''Caryota'' :*'' Caryota urens'' *''Cocos nucifera'' See also *Toddy ...
,
toddy palm Toddy palm is a common name for several species of palms used to produce palm wine, palm sugar and jaggery. Species so used and named include: *''Arenga pinnata'', the areng palm *''Borassus flabellifer'', the palmyra palm *''Caryota'', the fishta ...
*''
Butia ''Butia'' is a genus of palms in the family Arecaceae, native to the South American countries of Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina. Many species produce edible fruits, which are sometimes used to make alcoholic beverages and other foods. ...
'' *''
Calamus Calamus may refer to: Botany and zoology * ''Calamus'' (fish), a genus of fish in the family Sparidae * ''Calamus'' (palm), a genus of rattan palms * Calamus, the hollow shaft of a feather, also known as the quill * '' Acorus calamus'', the swe ...
''—
Rattan Rattan, also spelled ratan, is the name for roughly 600 species of Old World climbing palms belonging to subfamily Calamoideae. The greatest diversity of rattan palm species and genera are in the closed-canopy old-growth tropical forests of ...
palm *''
Ceroxylon ''Ceroxylon'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Arecaceae, native to the Andes in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, known as Andean wax palms.Govaerts, R. & Dransfield, J. (2005). World Checklist of Palms: 1-223. The Bo ...
'' *'' Cocos''—Coconut *''
Coccothrinax ''Coccothrinax'' is a genus of palms in the family Arecaceae. There are more than 50 species described in the genus, plus many synonyms and subspecies. A new species (''Coccothrinax spirituana'') was described as recently as 2017. Many ''Coccothr ...
'' *''
Copernicia ''Copernicia'' is a genus of palms native to South America and the Greater Antilles. Of the known species and nothospecies ( hybrids), 22 of the 27 are endemic to Cuba. They are fan palms (Arecaceae tribe Corypheae), with the leaves with a bar ...
''—
Carnauba wax Carnauba (; pt, carnaúba ), also called Brazil wax and palm wax, is a wax of the leaves of the carnauba palm ''Copernicia prunifera'' (synonym: ''Copernicia cerifera''), a plant native to and grown only in the northeastern Brazilian states of ...
palm *''
Corypha ''Corypha'' (gebang palm, buri palm or talipot palm) is a genus of palms (family Arecaceae), native to India, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, New Guinea and northeastern Australia (Cape York Peninsula, Queensland). They are fan palms (su ...
''—Gebang palm, Buri palm or Talipot palm *''
Elaeis ''Elaeis'' () is a genus of palms containing two species, called oil palms. They are used in commercial agriculture in the production of palm oil. The African oil palm ''Elaeis guineensis'' (the species name ''guineensis'' referring to its co ...
''—Oil palm *''
Euterpe Euterpe (; el, Εὐτέρπη, lit=rejoicing well' or 'delight , from grc, εὖ, eû, well + el, τέρπειν, térpein, to please) was one of the Muses in Greek mythology, presiding over music. In late Classical times, she was named muse ...
''—Cabbage heart palm, açaí palm *''
Hyphaene ''Hyphaene'' is a genus of palms native to Africa, Madagascar, the Middle East, and the Indian subcontinent.Govaerts, R. & Dransfield, J. (2005). World Checklist of Palms: 1-223. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. The gen ...
''—
Doum palm ''Hyphaene thebaica'', with common names doum palm (Ar: دوم) and gingerbread tree (also mistakenly doom palm), is a type of palm tree with edible oval fruit. It is a native to the Arabian Peninsula and also to the northern half and western pa ...
*''
Jubaea ''Jubaea'' is a genus of palms with one species, ''Jubaea chilensis'' or ''Jubaea spectabilis'', commonly known in English as the Chilean wine palm or Chile cocopalm, and palma chilena in Spanish. It is native to southwestern South America and i ...
''—Chilean wine palm, Coquito palm *''
Latania ''Latania'', commonly known as latan palm or latania palm, is a genus of flowering plant in the palm tree family, native to the Mascarene Islands in the western Indian Ocean. Species The genus contains three species, one from each of the three ...
''—Latan palm *''
Licuala ''Licuala'' is a genus of palms, in the tribe Trachycarpeae, commonly found in tropical forests of southern China, Southeast Asia, the Himalayas, New Guinea and the western Pacific Ocean islands. Description and uses ''Licuala'' spp. are fa ...
'' *''Livistona''—Cabbage palm *''Mauritia''—Moriche palm *''Metroxylon''—Metroxylon sagu, Sago palm *''Nypa fruticans, Nypa''—Nypa fruticans, Nipa palm *''Parajubaea''—Bolivian coconut palms *''Phoenix (plant), Phoenix''—Date palm *''Pritchardia'' *'' Raphia''—Raffia palm *''Rhapidophyllum'' *''
Rhapis ''Rhapis'' is a genus of about 10 species of small palms native to southeastern Asia from southern Japan and southern China south to Sumatra. The species are commonly known as lady palms. They are fan palms Fan palm as a descriptive term ...
'' *''
Roystonea ''Roystonea'' is a genus of eleven species of monoecious palms, native to the Caribbean Islands, and the adjacent coasts of the United States (Florida), Central America and northern South America. Commonly known as the royal palms, the genus ...
''—Royal palm *''Sabal''—Palmettos *''
Salacca ''Salacca'' is a genus of about 20 species of palms native to Southeast Asia and the eastern Himalayas. They are dioecious (with the exception of Salak Bali) and pollinated by Curculionidae beetles. They are very short-stemmed palms, with leave ...
''—Salak *''Syagrus (plant), Syagrus''—Syagrus romanzoffiana, Queen palm *''Thrinax'' *''Trachycarpus''—Trachycarpus fortunei, Windmill palm, Trachycarpus takil, Kumaon palm *''Trithrinax'' *''Veitchia''—Veitchia merrillii, Manila palm, Veitchia joannis, Joannis palm *''
Washingtonia ''Washingtonia'' is a genus of palms, native to the southwestern United States (in southern California, and southwest Arizona) and northwest Mexico (in Baja California and Sonora). Both ''Washingtonia'' species are commonly cultivated across t ...
''—Fan palm


Evolution

The Arecaceae are the first modern family of monocots appearing in the fossil record around 80 million years ago (Mya), during the late Cretaceous period. The first modern species, such as ''
Nypa fruticans ''Nypa fruticans'', commonly known as the nipa palm (or simply nipa, from ms, nipah) or mangrove palm, is a species of palm native to the coastlines and estuarine habitats of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the only palm considered adapte ...
'' and ''Acrocomia, Acrocomia aculeata'', appeared 69 Mya, as evidenced by fossil ''Nypa'' pollen. Palms appear to have undergone an early period of adaptive radiation. By 60 Mya, many of the modern, specialized genera of palms appeared and became widespread and common, much more widespread than their range today. Because palms separated from the monocots earlier than other families, they developed more intrafamilial specialization and diversity. By tracing back these diverse characteristics of palms to the basic structures of monocots, palms may be valuable in studying monocot evolution. Several species of palms have been identified from flowers preserved in amber, including ''Palaeoraphe, Palaeoraphe dominicana'' and ''Roystonea palaea''. Evidence can also be found in samples of petrified palmwood.


Uses

Human use of palms is at least as old as human civilization itself, starting with the cultivation of the date palm by Mesopotamians and other Middle Eastern peoples 5000 years or more ago. Date wood, pits for storing dates, and other remains of the date palm have been found in Mesopotamian sites. The date palm had a tremendous effect on the history of the Middle East. W.H. Barreveld wrote: An indication of the importance of palms in ancient times is that they are mentioned more than 30 times in the Bible, and at least 22 times in the Quran. Arecaceae have great economic importance, including coconut products, oils, dates, palm syrup, ivory nuts, carnauba wax, rattan cane, raffia, and Palmwood, palm wood. This family supplies a large amount of the human diet and several other human uses, both by absolute amount produced and by number of crop domestication, species domesticated. This is far higher than almost any other plant family, sixth out of domesticated crops in the human diet, and first in total economic value produced sharing the top spot with the Poaceae and Fabaceae. These human uses have also spread many Arecaceae species around the world. Along with dates mentioned above, members of the palm family with human uses are numerous. *The type member of Arecaceae is the
areca ''Areca'' is a genus of 51 species of palms in the family Arecaceae, found in humid tropical forests from the islands of the Philippines, Malaysia and India, across Southeast Asia to Melanesia. The generic name ''Areca'' is derived from a name u ...
palm, the fruit of which, the areca nut, is chewed with the betel leaf for intoxicating effects (''Areca catechu''). *Carnauba wax is harvested from the leaves of a Brazilian palm (''Copernicia''). *
Rattan Rattan, also spelled ratan, is the name for roughly 600 species of Old World climbing palms belonging to subfamily Calamoideae. The greatest diversity of rattan palm species and genera are in the closed-canopy old-growth tropical forests of ...
s, whose stems are used extensively in furniture and baskets, are in the genus ''Calamus''. *Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil produced by the oil palms in the genus ''
Elaeis ''Elaeis'' () is a genus of palms containing two species, called oil palms. They are used in commercial agriculture in the production of palm oil. The African oil palm ''Elaeis guineensis'' (the species name ''guineensis'' referring to its co ...
''. *Several species are harvested for heart of palm, a vegetable eaten in salads. *Sap of the nipa palm, ''
Nypa fruticans ''Nypa fruticans'', commonly known as the nipa palm (or simply nipa, from ms, nipah) or mangrove palm, is a species of palm native to the coastlines and estuarine habitats of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the only palm considered adapte ...
'', is used to make vinegar. *Palm Sap (plant), sap is sometimes fermentation (food), fermented to produce palm wine or toddy, an alcoholic beverage common in parts of Africa, India, and the Philippines. The sap may be drunk fresh, but fermentation is rapid, reaching up to 4% alcohol content within an hour, and turning vinegary in a day. *Palmyra and date palm sap is harvested in Bengal, India, to process into ''gur'' and ''jaggery''. *Dragon's blood, a red resin used traditionally in medicine, varnish, and dyes, may be obtained from the fruit of ''Daemonorops'' species. *Coconut is the partially edible seed of the fruit of the coconut palm (''Cocos nucifera''). *Coir is a coarse, water-resistant fiber extracted from the outer shell of coconuts, used in doormats, brushes, mattresses, and ropes. In India, beekeepers use coir in their bee smokers. *Some indigenous groups living in palm-rich areas use palms to make many of their necessary items and food. Sago, for example, a starch made from the pith of the trunk of the sago palm ''Metroxylon sagu'', is a major staple food for lowland peoples of New Guinea and the Moluccas. This is not the same plant commonly used as a house plant and called "sago palm". *Palm wine is made from ''
Jubaea ''Jubaea'' is a genus of palms with one species, ''Jubaea chilensis'' or ''Jubaea spectabilis'', commonly known in English as the Chilean wine palm or Chile cocopalm, and palma chilena in Spanish. It is native to southwestern South America and i ...
'' also called Chilean wine palm, or coquito palm *Recently, the fruit of the açaí palm ''Açaí Palm, Euterpe'' has been used for its reputed health benefits. *Saw palmetto (''Serenoa repens'') is under investigation as a drug for treating enlarged prostates. *Palm leaves are also valuable to some peoples as a material for thatching, basketry, clothing, and in religious ceremonies (see "Symbolism" below). *Ornamental uses: Today, palms are valuable as ornamental plants and are often grown along streets in tropical and subtropical cities. ''Chamaedorea elegans'' is a popular houseplant and is grown indoors for its low maintenance. Farther north, palms are a common feature in botanical gardens or as indoor plants. Few palms tolerate severe cold and the majority of the species are tropical or subtropical. The three most hardy palms, cold-tolerant species are ''Trachycarpus fortunei'', native to eastern Asia, and ''Rhapidophyllum hystrix'' and ''Sabal minor'', both native to the southeastern United States. *The southeastern U.S. state of South Carolina is nicknamed the Palmetto State after the sabal palmetto (cabbage palmetto), logs from which were used to build the fort at Fort Moultrie National Monument, Fort Moultrie. During the American Revolutionary War, they were invaluable to those defending the fort, because their spongy wood absorbed or deflected the British cannonballs. *Singaporean politician Tan Cheng Bock uses a palm tree-like symbol similar to a ''Ravenala'' to represent him in the 2011 Singaporean presidential election. The symbol of a party he founded, Progress Singapore Party, was also based on a palm tree. *On Ash Wednesday, Catholics receive a cross on their forehead made of palm ashes as a reminder of the Catholic belief that everyone and everything eventually returns to where it came from, commonly expressed by the saying "ashes to ashes and dust to dust". Image:Dates on date palm.jpg, Fruit of the date palm ''Phoenix dactylifera'' Image:Santa Monica Palm Trees.jpg, ''Washingtonia robusta'' palms line Ocean Avenue in Santa Monica, California. Image:Rodeo Palms -- Manvel, Texas.jpg, Rodeo Palms, a subdivision in Manvel, Texas File:Palm tree CANA.JPG, Sabal palm in the Canaveral National Seashore File:Coconut Palm flowers.jpg, Coconut flowers File:Palm tree top, Georgia, US.jpg, Close-up of the top, Atlantic Ocean, Georgia, U.S.


Endangered species

Like many other plants, palms have been threatened by human impact on the environment, human intervention and exploitation of natural resources, exploitation. The greatest risk to palms is habitat destruction, destruction of habitat, especially in the tropical forests, due to urbanization, Woodchipping, wood-chipping, mining, and conversion to farmland. Palms rarely reproduce after such great changes in the habitat, and those with small habitat ranges are most vulnerable to them. The harvesting of heart of palm, a delicacy in salads, also poses a threat because it is derived from the palm's apical meristem, a vital part of the palm that cannot be regrown (except in domesticated varieties, e.g. of peach palm). The use of rattan palms in furniture has caused a major population decrease in these species that has negatively affected local and international markets, as well as biodiversity in the area. The sale of seeds to nurseries and collectors is another threat, as the seeds of popular palms are sometimes harvested directly from the wild. In 2006, at least 100 palm species were considered endangered, and nine species have been reported as recently extinct. However, several factors make palm conservation more difficult. Palms live in almost every type of warm habitat and have tremendous morphological diversity. Most palm seeds lose viability quickly, and they cannot be preserved in low temperatures because the cold kills the embryo. Using botanical gardens for conservation also presents problems, since they can rarely house more than a few plants of any species or truly imitate the natural setting. There is also the risk that cross-pollination can lead to hybrid species. The Palm Specialist Group of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) began in 1984, and has performed a series of three studies to find basic information on the status of palms in the wild, use of wild palms, and palms under cultivation. Two projects on palm conservation and use supported by the WWF (conservation organization), World Wildlife Fund took place from 1985 to 1990 and 1986–1991, in the American tropics and southeast Asia, respectively. Both studies produced copious new data and publications on palms. Preparation of a global action plan for palm conservation began in 1991, supported by the IUCN, and was published in 1996. The rarest palm known is ''Hyophorbe amaricaulis''. The only living individual remains at the Botanic Gardens of Curepipe in Mauritius.


Arthropod pests

Some pests are specialists to particular taxon, taxa. Pests that attack a ''variety'' of species of palms include: * ''Raoiella indica'', the red palm mite * ''Caryobruchus gleditsiae'', the palm seed beetle or palm seed weevil * ''Rhynchophorus ferrugineus'', the red palm weevil, recently introduced to Europe


Symbolism

The palm branch was a symbol of triumph and victory in classical antiquity. The Ancient Rome, Romans rewarded champions of the games and celebrated military successes with palm branches. Early Christians used the palm branch to symbolize the victory of the faithful over enemies of the soul, as in the Palm Sunday festival celebrating the triumphal entry of Jesus Christ into Jerusalem. In Judaism, the palm represents peace and plenty, and is one of the Lulav, Four Species of Sukkot; the palm may also symbolize the Tree of Life in Kabbalah. The canopies of the Rathayatra carts which carry the deities of Krishna and his family members in the cart festival of Jagganath Puri in India are marked with the emblem of a palm tree. Specifically it is the symbol of Krishna's brother, Baladeva. In 1840, the American geologist Edward Hitchcock (1793–1864) published the first tree-like paleontology chart in his ''Elementary Geology'', with two separate Tree of life (biology), trees of life for the plants and the animals. These are crowned (graphically) with the Palms and with Man. Today, the palm, especially the coconut palm, remains a symbol of the tropical island paradise. Palms appear on the flags and seals of several places where they are native, including those of Coat of arms of Haiti, Haiti, Coat of arms of Guam, Guam, Coat of arms of Saudi Arabia, Saudi Arabia, Seal of Florida, Florida, and Flag of South Carolina, South Carolina.


Other plants

Some species commonly called palms, though they are not true palms, include: *''Ailanthus altissima'' (Ghetto palm), a tree in the flowering plant family Simaroubaceae *''Alocasia odora x gageana'' 'Calidora' (Persian palm), a flowering plant in the family Araceae *''Aloe thraskii'' (Palm aloe), a flowering plant in the family Asphodelaceae *''Amorphophallus konjac'' (Snake palm), a flowering plant in the family Araceae *''Beaucarnea recurvata'' (Ponytail palm), a flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae *''Begonia luxurians'' (Palm leaf begonia), a flowering plant in the family Begoniaceae *''Biophytum umbraculum'' (South Pacific palm), a flowering plant in the family Oxalidaceae *''Blechnum appendiculatum'' (Palm fern), a fern in the family Aspleniaceae *''Brighamia insignis'' (Vulcan palm), a flowering plant in the family Campanulaceae *''Carludovica palmata'' (Panama hat palm) and perhaps other members in the family Cyclanthaceae. *''Cordyline australis'' (Cabbage palm, Torbay palm, ti palm) or palm lily (family Asparagaceae) and other representatives in the genus ''Cordyline''. *''Cyathea cunninghamii'' (Palm fern) and other tree ferns (families Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae) that may be confused with palms. *''Cycas revoluta'' (Sago palm) and the rest of the order Cycadales. *''Cyperus alternifolius'' (Umbrella palm), a sedge in the family Cyperaceae *''Dasylirion longissimum'' (Grass palm), a flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae and other plants in the genus ''Dasylirion'' *''Dioon spinulosum'' (Gum palm), a cycad in the family Zamiaceae *''Dracaena marginata'' (Dragon palm) a flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae *''Eisenia arborea'' (Southern sea palm), a species of Phaeophyceae, brown alga in the family Lessoniaceae *''Fatsia japonica'' (Figleaf palm), a flowering plant in the family Araliaceae *''Hypnodendron comosum'' (Palm tree moss or palm moss), a moss in the family Hypnodendraceae *''Musa (genus), Musa'' species (Banana palm), a flowering plant in the family Musaceae *''Pachypodium lamerei'' (Madagascar palm), a flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae *''Pandanus spiralis'' (Screw palm), a flowering plant in the family PandanaceaeFAO 1995. ''Tropical Palms.''. Introduction. ''NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS'' 10. FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. and perhaps other ''Pandanus'' spp. *''Ravenala'' (Traveller's palm), a flowering plant in the family Strelitziaceae *''Setaria palmifolia'' (Palm grass), a grass in the family Poaceae *''Yucca brevifolia'' (Yucca palm or palm tree yucca) *''Yucca filamentosa'' (Needle palm) and ''Yucca filifera'' (St. Peter's palm), flowering plants in the family Asparagaceae *''Zamia furfuracea'' (Cardboard palm), a cycad in the family Zamiaceae *''Zamioculcas zamiifolia'' (Emerald palm or aroid palm), a flowering plant in the family Araceae


See also

* Coconut * Fan palm—genera with palmate leaves * List of Arecaceae genera * List of foliage plant diseases (Arecaceae) * List of hardy palms—palms able to withstand colder temperatures * ''Postelsia''—called the "sea palm" (a brown alga)


References


Citations


General sources

* (Latest Arecaceae or Palmae classification.) * * Carl Heinrich 'Schultzenstein' Schultz, Schultz-Schultzenstein, C. H. (1832)
''Natürliches System des Pflanzenreichs...''
p
317
Berlin, Germany.


External links


Palmpedia
A wiki-based site dedicated to high quality images and information on palm trees.
Fairchild Guide to Palms
A collection of palm images, scientific data, and horticultural information hosted by Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden, Miami.
Kew Botanic Garden's Palm Genera list
A list of the currently acknowledged genera by Kew Royal Botanic Gardens in London, England (Archived 2007)
Palm species listing with images
Palm and Cycad Societies of Australia (PACSOA)
Palm & Cycad Societies of Florida, Inc. (PACSOF)
which includes pages o

and

*

in th

{{Authority control Arecaceae, Arecales Commelinid families Extant Campanian first appearances Tropical agriculture