Intramembranous ossification is one of the two essential processes during
fetal development of the
gnathostome
Gnathostomata (; from Greek: (') "jaw" + (') "mouth") are the jawed vertebrates. Gnathostome diversity comprises roughly 60,000 species, which accounts for 99% of all living vertebrates, including humans. In addition to opposing jaws, living ...
(excluding
chondrichthyans such as
shark
Sharks are a group of elasmobranch fish characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton, five to seven gill slits on the sides of the head, and pectoral fins that are not fused to the head. Modern sharks are classified within the clade Selachi ...
s)
skeletal system
A skeleton is the structural frame that supports the body of an animal. There are several types of skeletons, including the exoskeleton, which is the stable outer shell of an organism, the endoskeleton, which forms the support structure inside ...
by which rudimentary
bone tissue is created.
Intramembranous ossification is also an essential process during the natural healing of
bone fractures and the rudimentary formation of
bone
A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the skeleton in most vertebrate animals. Bones protect the various other organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, ...
s of the
head
A head is the part of an organism which usually includes the ears, brain, forehead, cheeks, chin, eyes, nose, and mouth, each of which aid in various sensory functions such as sight, hearing, smell, and taste. Some very simple animals ...
.
Unlike
endochondral ossification
Endochondral ossification is one of the two essential processes during fetal development of the mammalian skeletal system by which bone tissue is produced. Unlike intramembranous ossification, the other process by which bone tissue is produced ...
, which is the other process by which bone tissue is created during fetal development,
cartilage
Cartilage is a resilient and smooth type of connective tissue. In tetrapods, it covers and protects the ends of long bones at the joints as articular cartilage, and is a structural component of many body parts including the rib cage, the neck ...
is not present during intramembranous ossification.
Formation of woven bone
Mesenchymal stem cells within
mesenchyme
Mesenchyme () is a type of loosely organized animal embryonic connective tissue of undifferentiated cells that give rise to most tissues, such as skin, blood or bone. The interactions between mesenchyme and epithelium help to form nearly every ...
or the
medullary cavity of a bone fracture initiate the process of intramembranous ossification. A mesenchymal stem cell, or MSC, is an unspecialized cell that can develop into an
osteoblast
Osteoblasts (from the Greek language, Greek combining forms for "bone", ὀστέο-, ''osteo-'' and βλαστάνω, ''blastanō'' "germinate") are cell (biology), cells with a single Cell nucleus, nucleus that synthesize bone. However, in the p ...
. Before it begins to develop, the
morphological characteristics of a MSC are: A small
cell body with a few cell processes that are long and thin; a large, round
nucleus
Nucleus ( : nuclei) is a Latin word for the seed inside a fruit. It most often refers to:
* Atomic nucleus, the very dense central region of an atom
*Cell nucleus, a central organelle of a eukaryotic cell, containing most of the cell's DNA
Nucl ...
with a prominent
nucleolus
The nucleolus (, plural: nucleoli ) is the largest structure in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. It is best known as the site of ribosome biogenesis, which is the synthesis of ribosomes. The nucleolus also participates in the formation of sign ...
that is surrounded by finely dispersed
chromatin
Chromatin is a complex of DNA and protein found in eukaryote, eukaryotic cells. The primary function is to package long DNA molecules into more compact, denser structures. This prevents the strands from becoming tangled and also plays important ...
particles, giving the nucleus a clear appearance; and a small amount of
Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus (), also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or simply the Golgi, is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Part of the endomembrane system in the cytoplasm, it packages proteins into membrane-bound vesicles i ...
,
rough endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria
A mitochondrion (; ) is an organelle found in the cells of most Eukaryotes, such as animals, plants and fungi. Mitochondria have a double membrane structure and use aerobic respiration to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is used ...
, and
polyribosomes. Furthermore, the mesenchymal stem cells are widely dispersed within an
extracellular matrix
In biology, the extracellular matrix (ECM), also called intercellular matrix, is a three-dimensional network consisting of extracellular macromolecules and minerals, such as collagen, enzymes, glycoproteins and hydroxyapatite that provide s ...
that is devoid of every type of
collagen
Collagen () is the main structural protein in the extracellular matrix found in the body's various connective tissues. As the main component of connective tissue, it is the most abundant protein in mammals, making up from 25% to 35% of the whol ...
, except for a few
reticular
In chemistry and biology a cross-link is a bond or a short sequence of bonds that links one polymer chain to another. These links may take the form of covalent bonds or ionic bonds and the polymers can be either synthetic polymers or natural ...
fibrils.
The process of intramembranous ossification starts when a small group of adjacent MSCs begin to
replicate and form a small, dense cluster of cells that is called a ''nidus''. Once a nidus has been formed the MSCs within it stop replicating.
At this point, morphological changes in the MSCs begin to occur: The cell body is now larger and rounder; the long, thin cell processes are no longer present; and the amount of Golgi apparatus and rough endoplasmic reticulum increases. Eventually, all of the cells within the nidus develop into, and display the morphologic characteristics of, an
osteoprogenitor cell.
changes in the morphology of the osteoprogenitor cells occur: Their shape becomes more columnar and the amount of Golgi apparatus and rough endoplasmic reticulum increases. Eventually, all of the cells within the nidus develop into, and display the morphologic characteristics of, an
osteoblast
Osteoblasts (from the Greek language, Greek combining forms for "bone", ὀστέο-, ''osteo-'' and βλαστάνω, ''blastanō'' "germinate") are cell (biology), cells with a single Cell nucleus, nucleus that synthesize bone. However, in the p ...
.
Then the osteoblasts create an extracellular matrix containing
Type-I collagen fibrils, which is
osteoid. The osteoblasts, while lining the periphery of the nidus, continue to form osteoid in the center of the nidus. Some of the osteoblasts become incorporated within the osteoid to become
osteocytes.
At this point, the osteoid becomes mineralized resulting in a nidus consisting of mineralized osteoid that contains osteocytes and is lined by active osteoblasts. The nidus, that began as a diffuse collection of MSCs, has developed into woven bone, the most rudimentary
bone tissue.
Formation of lamellar bone
The first step in the process is the formation of bone
spicules
Spicules are any of various small needle-like anatomical structures occurring in organisms
Spicule may also refer to:
*Spicule (sponge), small skeletal elements of sea sponges
*Spicule (nematode), reproductive structures found in male nematodes ( ...
which eventually fuse with each other and become
trabeculae. The
periosteum is formed and bone growth continues at the surface of trabeculae. Much like spicules, the increasing growth of trabeculae result in interconnection and this network is called ''woven bone''. Eventually, woven bone is replaced by ''
lamellar bone''.
Formation of bone spicules
Embryo
An embryo is an initial stage of development of a multicellular organism. In organisms that reproduce sexually, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization of the female egg cell by the male spe ...
logic
mesenchymal cell
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) also known as mesenchymal stromal cells or medicinal signaling cells are multipotent stromal cells that can differentiate into a variety of cell types, including osteoblasts (bone cells), chondrocytes (cartilage cel ...
s (MSC) condense into layers of vascularized primitive
connective tissue
Connective tissue is one of the four primary types of animal tissue, along with epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. It develops from the mesenchyme derived from the mesoderm the middle embryonic germ layer. Connective tiss ...
. Certain mesenchymal cells group together, usually near or around blood vessels, and differentiate into osteogenic cells which deposit bone
matrix
Matrix most commonly refers to:
* ''The Matrix'' (franchise), an American media franchise
** '' The Matrix'', a 1999 science-fiction action film
** "The Matrix", a fictional setting, a virtual reality environment, within ''The Matrix'' (franchi ...
constitutively. These aggregates of bony
matrix
Matrix most commonly refers to:
* ''The Matrix'' (franchise), an American media franchise
** '' The Matrix'', a 1999 science-fiction action film
** "The Matrix", a fictional setting, a virtual reality environment, within ''The Matrix'' (franchi ...
are called bone spicules. Separate mesenchymal cells differentiate into
osteoblast
Osteoblasts (from the Greek language, Greek combining forms for "bone", ὀστέο-, ''osteo-'' and βλαστάνω, ''blastanō'' "germinate") are cell (biology), cells with a single Cell nucleus, nucleus that synthesize bone. However, in the p ...
s, which line up along the surface of the spicule and secrete more
osteoid, which increases the size of the spicule.
Formation of trabecular bone
As the spicules continue to grow, they fuse with adjacent spicules and this results in the formation of ''
trabeculae''. When
osteoblast
Osteoblasts (from the Greek language, Greek combining forms for "bone", ὀστέο-, ''osteo-'' and βλαστάνω, ''blastanō'' "germinate") are cell (biology), cells with a single Cell nucleus, nucleus that synthesize bone. However, in the p ...
s become trapped in the matrix they secrete, they differentiate into
osteocytes. Osteoblasts continue to line up on the surface which increases the size. As growth continues, trabeculae become interconnected and ''trabecular bone'' is formed. The term ''primary spongiosa'' is also used to refer to the initial trabecular network.
Primary centre of ossification
The ''
periosteum'' is formed around the trabeculae by differentiating mesenchymal cells. The primary center of ossification is the area where bone growth occurs between the
periosteum and the bone. Osteogenic cells that originate from the periosteum increase appositional growth and a
bone collar The bone collar is a cuff of periosteal bone that forms around the diaphysis of the hyaline cartilage model in developing long bones.Wheater's Functional Histology, 5th ed. Young, Lowe, Stevens and Heath. The bone collar appears during endochondr ...
is formed. The bone collar is eventually mineralized and ''lamellar bone'' is formed.
Formation of osteon
''
Osteons'' are components or principal structures of compact bone. During the formation of bone spicules,
cytoplasm
In cell biology, the cytoplasm is all of the material within a eukaryotic cell, enclosed by the cell membrane, except for the cell nucleus. The material inside the nucleus and contained within the nuclear membrane is termed the nucleoplasm. ...
ic processes from osteoblasts interconnect. This becomes the canaliculi of osteons. Since bone spicules tend to form around
blood vessel
The blood vessels are the components of the circulatory system that transport blood throughout the human body. These vessels transport blood cells, nutrients, and oxygen to the tissues of the body. They also take waste and carbon dioxide awa ...
s, the perivascular space is greatly reduced as the bone continues to grow. When replacement to compact bone occurs, this blood vessel becomes the central canal of the osteon.
Examples in the human body
The following bones develop in humans via ''Intramembranous ossification'':
*
Flat bones of the face
* Most of the bones of the
skull
The skull is a bone protective cavity for the brain. The skull is composed of four types of bone i.e., cranial bones, facial bones, ear ossicles and hyoid bone. However two parts are more prominent: the cranium and the mandible. In humans, th ...
*
Clavicles
Other bone that formed by intramembranous ossification are: cortices of tubular and flat bones as well as the
calvaria, upper facial bones, tympanic temporal bone, vomer, and medial pterygoid process.
See also
*
Ossification
Ossification (also called osteogenesis or bone mineralization) in bone remodeling is the process of laying down new bone material by cells named osteoblasts. It is synonymous with bone tissue formation. There are two processes resulting in ...
Footnotes
References
*
{{Bone and cartilage
Vertebrate developmental biology
Skeletal system
de:Ossifikation#Desmale Ossifikation