Cellulose is an
organic compound
In chemistry, organic compounds are generally any chemical compounds that contain carbon-hydrogen or carbon-carbon bonds. Due to carbon's ability to catenate (form chains with other carbon atoms), millions of organic compounds are known. Th ...
with the
formula , a
polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of
β(1→4) linked D-glucose units.
Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary
cell wall of
green plants
Viridiplantae (literally "green plants") are a clade of eukaryotic organisms that comprise approximately 450,000–500,000 species and play important roles in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. They are made up of the green algae, which a ...
, many forms of
algae and the
oomycetes. Some species of
bacteria secrete it to form
biofilms. Cellulose is the most abundant
organic polymer on Earth.
The cellulose content of
cotton fiber is 90%, that of
wood is 40–50%, and that of dried
hemp is approximately 57%.
Cellulose is mainly used to produce
paperboard and
paper. Smaller quantities are converted into a wide variety of derivative products such as
cellophane and
rayon. Conversion of cellulose from
energy crops into
biofuels such as
cellulosic ethanol is under development as a
renewable fuel source. Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained from
wood pulp and
cotton.
Some animals, particularly
ruminants and
termites, can
digest
Digest may refer to:
Biology
*Digestion of food
*Restriction digest
Literature and publications
*'' The Digest'', formerly the English and Empire Digest
*Digest size magazine format
* ''Digest'' (Roman law), also known as ''Pandects'', a digest ...
cellulose with the help of
symbiotic micro-organisms that live in their guts, such as ''
Trichonympha
''Trichonympha'' is a genus of single-celled, anaerobic parabasalids of the order Hypermastigia that is found exclusively in the hindgut of lower termites and wood roaches. ''Trichonympha''’s bell shape and thousands of flagella make it an eas ...
''. In
human nutrition, cellulose is a non-digestible constituent of
insoluble
In chemistry, solubility is the ability of a substance, the solute, to form a solution with another substance, the solvent. Insolubility is the opposite property, the inability of the solute to form such a solution.
The extent of the solubi ...
dietary fiber, acting as a
hydrophilic bulking agent
Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance taste, appearance, or other sensory qualities. Some additives have been used for centuries as part of an effort to preserve food, for example vinegar (pickling), salt (sal ...
for
feces and potentially aiding in
defecation.
History
Cellulose was discovered in 1838 by the French chemist
Anselme Payen
Anselme Payen (; 6 January 1795 – 12 May 1871) was a French chemist known for discovering the enzyme diastase, and the carbohydrate cellulose.
Biography
Payen was born in Paris. He began studying science with his father when he was a 13-ye ...
, who isolated it from plant matter and determined its chemical formula.
Cellulose was used to produce the first successful
thermoplastic polymer,
celluloid, by Hyatt Manufacturing Company in 1870. Production of
rayon ("artificial
silk") from cellulose began in the 1890s and
cellophane was invented in 1912.
Hermann Staudinger determined the polymer structure of cellulose in 1920. The compound was first chemically synthesized (without the use of any biologically derived
enzyme
Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products ...
s) in 1992, by Kobayashi and Shoda.
Structure and properties
Cellulose has no taste, is odorless, is
hydrophilic with the
contact angle of 20–30 degrees, is insoluble in
water
Water (chemical formula ) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as ...
and most organic
solvents, is
chiral and is
biodegradable. It was shown to melt at 467 °C in pulse tests made by Dauenhauer ''et al.'' (2016).
It can be broken down chemically into its glucose units by treating it with concentrated mineral acids at high temperature.
Cellulose is derived from
D-glucose units, which
condense through β(1→4)-
glycosidic bonds. This linkage motif contrasts with that for α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds present in
starch and
glycogen. Cellulose is a straight chain polymer. Unlike starch, no coiling or branching occurs and the molecule adopts an extended and rather stiff rod-like conformation, aided by the equatorial conformation of the glucose residues. The multiple
hydroxyl groups on the glucose from one chain form
hydrogen bonds with oxygen atoms on the same or on a neighbor chain, holding the chains firmly together side-by-side and forming ''microfibrils'' with high
tensile strength. This confers tensile strength in
cell walls where cellulose microfibrils are meshed into a polysaccharide ''matrix''. The high tensile strength of plant stems and of the tree wood also arises from the arrangement of cellulose fibers intimately distributed into the
lignin matrix. The mechanical role of cellulose fibers in the wood matrix responsible for its strong structural resistance, can somewhat be compared to that of the
reinforcement bars in
concrete,
lignin playing here the role of the
hardened cement paste acting as the "glue" in between the cellulose fibers. Mechanical properties of cellulose in primary plant cell wall are correlated with growth and expansion of plant cells.
Live fluorescence microscopy techniques are promising in investigation of the role of cellulose in growing plant cells.
Compared to starch, cellulose is also much more
crystalline. Whereas starch undergoes a crystalline to
amorphous transition when heated beyond 60–70 °C in water (as in cooking), cellulose requires a temperature of 320 °C and pressure of 25
MPa to become amorphous in water.
Several types of cellulose are known. These forms are distinguished according to the location of hydrogen bonds between and within strands. Natural cellulose is cellulose I, with structures I
α and I
β. Cellulose produced by bacteria and algae is enriched in I
α while cellulose of higher plants consists mainly of I
β. Cellulose in
regenerated cellulose fibers is cellulose II. The conversion of cellulose I to cellulose II is irreversible, suggesting that cellulose I is
metastable and cellulose II is stable. With various chemical treatments it is possible to produce the structures cellulose III and cellulose IV.
Many properties of cellulose depend on its chain length or
degree of polymerization
The degree of polymerization, or DP, is the number of monomeric units in a macromolecule or polymer or oligomer molecule.
For a homopolymer, there is only one type of monomeric unit and the ''number-average'' degree of polymerization is given by ...
, the number of glucose units that make up one polymer molecule. Cellulose from wood pulp has typical chain lengths between 300 and 1700 units; cotton and other plant fibers as well as bacterial cellulose have chain lengths ranging from 800 to 10,000 units.
Molecules with very small chain length resulting from the breakdown of cellulose are known as
cellodextrins; in contrast to long-chain cellulose, cellodextrins are typically soluble in water and organic solvents.
The chemical formula of cellulose is (C
6H
10O
5)n where n is the degree of polymerization and represents the number of glucose groups.
Plant-derived cellulose is usually found in a mixture with
hemicellulose,
lignin,
pectin and other substances, while
bacterial cellulose
Bacterial cellulose is an organic compound with the formula produced by certain types of bacteria. While cellulose is a basic structural material of most plants, it is also produced by bacteria, principally of the genera ''Acetobacter'', ''Sarcin ...
is quite pure, has a much higher water content and higher tensile strength due to higher chain lengths.
Cellulose consists of fibrils with
crystalline and
amorphous regions. These cellulose fibrils may be individualized by mechanical treatment of cellulose pulp, often assisted by chemical
oxidation or
enzymatic treatment, yielding semi-flexible
cellulose nanofibrils generally 200 nm to 1 μm in length depending on the treatment intensity. Cellulose pulp may also be treated with strong acid to
hydrolyze
Hydrolysis (; ) is any chemical reaction in which a molecule of water breaks one or more chemical bonds. The term is used broadly for substitution, elimination, and solvation reactions in which water is the nucleophile.
Biological hydrolysis i ...
the amorphous fibril regions, thereby producing short rigid
cellulose nanocrystals a few 100 nm in length. These
nanocellulose
Nanocellulose is a term referring to nano-structured cellulose. This may be either cellulose nanocrystal (CNC or NCC), cellulose nanofibers (CNF) also called nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC), or bacterial nanocellulose, which refers to nano-struc ...
s are of high technological interest due to their
self-assembly into
cholesteric liquid crystals, production of
hydrogels or
aerogels, use in
nanocomposite
Nanocomposite is a multiphase solid material where one of the phases has one, two or three dimensions of less than 100 nanometers (nm) or structures having nano-scale repeat distances between the different phases that make up the material.
The id ...
s with superior thermal and mechanical properties, and use as
Pickering stabilizers for
emulsions.
Processing
Biosynthesis
In
plants cellulose is synthesized at the
plasma membrane by rosette terminal complexes (RTCs). The RTCs are
hexameric protein structures, approximately 25
nm in diameter, that contain the
cellulose synthase
The UDP-forming form of cellulose synthase () is the main enzyme that produces cellulose. Systematically, it is known as ''UDP-glucose:(1→4)-β-D-glucan 4-β-D-glucosyltransferase'' in enzymology. It catalyzes the chemical reaction:
: UDP-gl ...
enzymes that synthesise the individual cellulose chains. Each RTC floats in the cell's plasma membrane and "spins" a microfibril into the
cell wall.
RTCs contain at least three different
cellulose synthase
The UDP-forming form of cellulose synthase () is the main enzyme that produces cellulose. Systematically, it is known as ''UDP-glucose:(1→4)-β-D-glucan 4-β-D-glucosyltransferase'' in enzymology. It catalyzes the chemical reaction:
: UDP-gl ...
s, encoded by ''CesA'' (''Ces'' is short for "cellulose synthase") genes, in an unknown
stoichiometry. Separate sets of ''CesA'' genes are involved in primary and secondary cell wall biosynthesis. There are known to be about seven subfamilies in the plant ''CesA'' superfamily, some of which include the more cryptic, tentatively-named ''Csl'' (cellulose synthase-like) enzymes. These cellulose syntheses use UDP-glucose to form the β(1→4)-linked cellulose.
Bacterial cellulose
Bacterial cellulose is an organic compound with the formula produced by certain types of bacteria. While cellulose is a basic structural material of most plants, it is also produced by bacteria, principally of the genera ''Acetobacter'', ''Sarcin ...
is produced using the same family of proteins, although the gene is called ''BcsA'' for "bacterial cellulose synthase" or ''CelA'' for "cellulose" in many instances.
In fact, plants acquired ''CesA'' from the endosymbiosis event that produced the
chloroplast.
All cellulose synthases known belongs to
glucosyltransferase Glucosyltransferases are a type of glycosyltransferase that enable the transfer of glucose.
Examples include:
* glycogen synthase
* glycogen phosphorylase
Glycogen phosphorylase is one of the phosphorylase enzymes (). Glycogen phosphorylase cat ...
family 2 (GT2).
Cellulose synthesis requires chain initiation and elongation, and the two processes are separate.
Cellulose synthase (''CesA'') initiates cellulose polymerization using a
steroid primer,
sitosterol-beta-
glucoside, and UDP-glucose. It then utilizes
UDP-D-glucose precursors to elongate the growing cellulose chain. A
cellulase
Cellulase (EC 3.2.1.4; systematic name 4-β-D-glucan 4-glucanohydrolase) is any of several enzymes produced chiefly by fungi, bacteria, and protozoans that catalyze cellulolysis, the decomposition of cellulose and of some related polysaccha ...
may function to cleave the primer from the mature chain.
Cellulose is also synthesised by
tunicate animals, particularly in the
test
Test(s), testing, or TEST may refer to:
* Test (assessment), an educational assessment intended to measure the respondents' knowledge or other abilities
Arts and entertainment
* ''Test'' (2013 film), an American film
* ''Test'' (2014 film), ...
s of
ascidians (where the cellulose was historically termed "tunicine" (tunicin)).
Breakdown (cellulolysis)
Cellulolysis is the process of breaking down cellulose into smaller polysaccharides called
cellodextrins or completely into
glucose units; this is a
hydrolysis reaction. Because cellulose molecules bind strongly to each other, cellulolysis is relatively difficult compared to the breakdown of other
polysaccharides. However, this process can be significantly intensified in a proper
solvent, e.g. in an
ionic liquid.
Most mammals have limited ability to digest dietary fiber such as cellulose. Some
ruminants like cows and sheep contain certain
symbiotic anaerobic bacteria (such as ''
Cellulomonas'' and ''
Ruminococcus
''Ruminococcus'' is a genus of bacteria in the class Clostridia. They are anaerobic, Gram-positive gut microbes. One or more species in this genus are found in significant numbers in the human gut microbiota. The type species is ''R. flavefacien ...
''
spp.) in the flora of the
rumen, and these bacteria produce
enzyme
Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products ...
s called
cellulase
Cellulase (EC 3.2.1.4; systematic name 4-β-D-glucan 4-glucanohydrolase) is any of several enzymes produced chiefly by fungi, bacteria, and protozoans that catalyze cellulolysis, the decomposition of cellulose and of some related polysaccha ...
s that hydrolyze cellulose. The breakdown products are then used by the bacteria for proliferation.
The bacterial mass is later digested by the ruminant in its
digestive system (
stomach and
small intestine).
Horses use cellulose in their diet by
fermentation in their hindgut. Some
termites contain in their
hindguts certain
flagellate protozoa producing such enzymes, whereas others contain bacteria or may produce cellulase.
The enzymes used to
cleave the
glycosidic linkage in cellulose are
glycoside hydrolase
Glycoside hydrolases (also called glycosidases or glycosyl hydrolases) catalyze the hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds in complex sugars. They are extremely common enzymes with roles in nature including degradation of biomass such as cellulose (cel ...
s including endo-acting
cellulase
Cellulase (EC 3.2.1.4; systematic name 4-β-D-glucan 4-glucanohydrolase) is any of several enzymes produced chiefly by fungi, bacteria, and protozoans that catalyze cellulolysis, the decomposition of cellulose and of some related polysaccha ...
s and exo-acting
glucosidases. Such enzymes are usually secreted as part of multienzyme complexes that may include
dockerins and
carbohydrate-binding modules.
Breakdown (thermolysis)
At temperatures above 350 °C, cellulose undergoes
thermolysis
Thermal decomposition, or thermolysis, is a chemical decomposition caused by heat. The decomposition temperature of a substance is the temperature at which the substance chemically decomposes. The reaction is usually endothermic as heat is re ...
(also called '
pyrolysis'), decomposing into solid
char
Char may refer to:
People
* Char Fontane, American actress
* Char Margolis, American spiritualist
* René Char (1907–1988), French poet
*The Char family of Colombia:
** Fuad Char, Colombian senator
** Alejandro Char Chaljub, mayor of Barranquill ...
, vapors,
aerosols, and gases such as
carbon dioxide. Maximum yield of vapors which condense to a liquid called ''
bio-oil
Pyrolysis oil, sometimes also known as bio-crude or bio-oil, is a synthetic fuel under investigation as substitute for petroleum. It is obtained by heating dried biomass without oxygen in a reactor at a temperature of about with subsequent co ...
'' is obtained at 500 °C.
Semi-crystalline cellulose polymers react at pyrolysis temperatures (350–600 °C) in a few seconds; this transformation has been shown to occur via a solid-to-liquid-to-vapor transition, with the liquid (called ''intermediate liquid cellulose'' or ''molten cellulose'') existing for only a fraction of a second. Glycosidic bond cleavage produces short cellulose chains of two-to-seven
monomers comprising the melt. Vapor bubbling of intermediate liquid cellulose produces
aerosols, which consist of short chain anhydro-oligomers derived from the melt.
Continuing decomposition of molten cellulose produces volatile compounds including
levoglucosan,
furans,
pyrans, light oxygenates, and gases via primary reactions. Within thick cellulose samples, volatile compounds such as
levoglucosan undergo 'secondary reactions' to volatile products including pyrans and light oxygenates such as
glycolaldehyde
Glycolaldehyde is the organic compound with the formula . It is the smallest possible molecule that contains both an aldehyde group () and a hydroxyl group (). It is a highly reactive molecule that occurs both in the biosphere and in the inter ...
.
Hemicellulose
Hemicelluloses are
polysaccharides related to cellulose that comprises about 20% of the biomass of
land plants
The Embryophyta (), or land plants, are the most familiar group of green plants that comprise vegetation on Earth. Embryophytes () have a common ancestor with green algae, having emerged within the Phragmoplastophyta clade of green algae as siste ...
. In contrast to cellulose, hemicelluloses are derived from several sugars in addition to
glucose, especially
xylose
Xylose ( grc, ξύλον, , "wood") is a sugar first isolated from wood, and named for it. Xylose is classified as a monosaccharide of the aldopentose type, which means that it contains five carbon atoms and includes an aldehyde functional g ...
but also including
mannose
Mannose is a sugar monomer of the aldohexose series of carbohydrates. It is a C-2 epimer of glucose. Mannose is important in human metabolism, especially in the glycosylation of certain proteins. Several congenital disorders of glycosylat ...
,
galactose,
rhamnose, and
arabinose
Arabinose is an aldopentose – a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms, and including an aldehyde (CHO) functional group.
For biosynthetic reasons, most saccharides are almost always more abundant in nature as the "D"-form, or structural ...
. Hemicelluloses consist of shorter chains – between 500 and 3000 sugar units.
Furthermore, hemicelluloses are branched, whereas cellulose is unbranched.
Regenerated cellulose
Cellulose is soluble in several kinds of media, several of which are the basis of commercial technologies. These dissolution processes are reversible and are used in the production of regenerated celluloses (such as
viscose and
cellophane) from
dissolving pulp Dissolving pulp, also called dissolving cellulose, is bleached wood pulp or cotton linters that has a high cellulose content (> 90%). It has special properties including a high level of brightness and uniform molecular-weight distribution. This pul ...
.
The most important solubilizing agent is carbon disulfide in the presence of alkali. Other agents include
Schweizer's reagent,
''N''-methylmorpholine ''N''-oxide, and
lithium chloride in
dimethylacetamide. In general, these agents modify the cellulose, rendering it soluble. The agents are then removed concomitant with the formation of fibers. Cellulose is also soluble in many kinds of
ionic liquids.
The history of regenerated cellulose is often cited as beginning with George Audemars, who first manufactured regenerated
nitrocellulose fibers in 1855.
Although these fibers were soft and strong -resembling silk- they had the drawback of being highly flammable.
Hilaire de Chardonnet
Louis-Marie Hilaire Bernigaud de Grange, Count (''Comte'') de Chardonnet (1 May 1839 – 11 March 1924) was a French engineer and industrialist from Besançon, and inventor of artificial silk.
In the late 1870s, Chardonnet was working with Lo ...
perfected production of nitrocellulose fibers, but manufacturing of these fibers by his process was relatively uneconomical.
In 1890, L.H. Despeissis invented the
cuprammonium process – which uses a cuprammonium solution to solubilize cellulose – a method still used today for production of
artificial silk. In 1891, it was discovered that treatment of cellulose with alkali and carbon disulfide generated a soluble cellulose derivative known as
viscose.
This process, patented by the founders of the Viscose Development Company, is the most widely used method for manufacturing regenerated cellulose products.
Courtaulds
Courtaulds was a United Kingdom-based manufacturer of fabric, clothing, artificial fibres, and chemicals. It was established in 1794 and became the world's leading man-made fibre production company before being broken up in 1990 into Courtaulds ...
purchased the patents for this process in 1904, leading to significant growth of viscose fiber production.
By 1931, expiration of patents for the viscose process led to its adoption worldwide. Global production of regenerated cellulose fiber peaked in 1973 at 3,856,000 tons.
Regenerated cellulose can be used to manufacture a wide variety of products. While the first application of regenerated cellulose was as a clothing
textile, this class of materials is also used in the production of disposable medical devices as well as fabrication of
artificial membranes.
Cellulose esters and ethers
The
hydroxyl groups (−OH) of cellulose can be partially or fully reacted with various
reagents to afford derivatives with useful properties like mainly cellulose
esters and cellulose
ethers (−OR). In principle, although not always in current industrial practice, cellulosic polymers are renewable resources.
Ester derivatives include:
The cellulose acetate and cellulose triacetate are film- and fiber-forming materials that find a variety of uses. The nitrocellulose was initially used as an explosive and was an early film forming material. With
camphor, nitrocellulose gives
celluloid.
Ether derivatives include:
The sodium carboxymethyl cellulose can be
cross-linked to give the
croscarmellose sodium (E468) for use as a
disintegrant in pharmaceutical formulations.
Commercial applications
Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained from
wood pulp and from
cotton.
* Paper products: Cellulose is the major constituent of
paper,
paperboard, and
card stock.
Electrical insulation paper: Cellulose is used in diverse forms as insulation in transformers, cables, and other electrical equipment.
* Fibers: Cellulose is the main ingredient of
textiles.
Cotton and synthetics (nylons) each have about 40% market by volume. Other
plant fiber
Fiber crops are field crops grown for their fibers, which are traditionally used to make paper, cloth, or rope.
Fiber crops are characterized by having a large concentration of cellulose, which is what gives them their strength. The fibers may b ...
s (jute, sisal, hemp) represent about 20% of the market.
Rayon,
cellophane and other "regenerated
cellulose fibers" are a small portion (5%).
* Consumables:
Microcrystalline cellulose Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is a term for refined wood pulp and is used as a texturizer, an anti-caking agent, a fat substitute, an emulsifier, an extender, and a bulking agent in food production. The most common form is used in vitamin supp ...
(
E460i) and powdered cellulose (E460ii) are used as inactive
fillers
In processed animal foods, a filler is an ingredient added to provide dietary fiber, bulk or some other non-nutritive purpose.
Products like corncobs, feathers, soy, cottonseed hulls, peanut hulls, citrus pulp, screening, weeds, straw, and cere ...
in drug tablets and a wide range of soluble cellulose derivatives, E numbers E461 to E469, are used as emulsifiers, thickeners and stabilizers in processed foods. Cellulose powder is, for example, used in processed cheese to prevent caking inside the package. Cellulose occurs naturally in some foods and is an additive in manufactured foods, contributing an indigestible component used for texture and bulk, potentially aiding in
defecation.
* Building material: Hydroxyl bonding of cellulose in water produces a sprayable, moldable material as an alternative to the use of plastics and resins. The recyclable material can be made water- and fire-resistant. It provides sufficient strength for use as a building material.
Cellulose insulation made from recycled paper is becoming popular as an environmentally preferable material for
building insulation. It can be treated with
boric acid as a
fire retardant.
* Miscellaneous: Cellulose can be converted into
cellophane, a thin transparent film. It is the base material for the
celluloid that was used for photographic and movie films until the mid-1930s. Cellulose is used to make water-soluble
adhesives and
binders such as
methyl cellulose and
carboxymethyl cellulose
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) or cellulose gum is a cellulose derivative with carboxymethyl groups (-CH2-COOH) bound to some of the hydroxyl groups of the glucopyranose monomers that make up the cellulose backbone. It is often used as its sodiu ...
which are used in
wallpaper paste Adhesive flakes that are mixed with water to produce wallpaper paste
Wallpaper adhesive or wallpaper paste is a specific adhesive, based on modified starch, methylcellulose, or clay used to fix wallpaper to walls.
Wallpaper pastes have a typical ...
. Cellulose is further used to make
hydrophilic and highly absorbent
sponges. Cellulose is the raw material in the manufacture of
nitrocellulose (cellulose nitrate) which is used in
smokeless gunpowder.
*Pharmaceuticals: Cellulose derivatives, such as
microcrystalline cellulose Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is a term for refined wood pulp and is used as a texturizer, an anti-caking agent, a fat substitute, an emulsifier, an extender, and a bulking agent in food production. The most common form is used in vitamin supp ...
(MCC), have the advantages of retaining water, being a
stabilizer and
thickening agent, and in reinforcement of drug tablets.
Aspirational
Energy crops: The major
combustible component of non-food
energy crops is cellulose, with
lignin second. Non-food energy crops produce more usable energy than edible energy crops (which have a large
starch component), but still compete with food crops for agricultural land and water resources. Typical non-food energy crops include
industrial hemp,
switchgrass, ''
Miscanthus'', ''Salix'' (
willow), and ''Populus'' (
poplar) species. A strain of ''
Clostridium'' bacteria found in zebra dung, can convert nearly any form of cellulose into
butanol fuel.
See also
*
Gluconic acid
Gluconic acid is an organic compound with molecular formula C6H12O7 and condensed structural formula HOCH2(CHOH)4COOH. It is one of the 16 stereoisomers of 2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexanoic acid.
In aqueous solution at neutral pH, gluconic acid ...
*
Isosaccharinic acid
Isosaccharinic acid (ISA) is a six-carbon sugar acid which is formed by the action of calcium hydroxide on lactose and other carbohydrates. It is of interest because it may form in intermediate-level nuclear waste stores when cellulose is degra ...
, a degradation product of cellulose
*
Lignin
*
Zeoform
References
External links
*
Structure and morphology of celluloseby Serge Pérez and William Mackie, CERMAV-
CNRS
Cellulose by Martin Chaplin,
London South Bank University
Clear description of a cellulose assay methodat the Cotton Fiber Biosciences unit of the
USDA.
Cellulose films could provide flapping wings and cheap artificial muscles for robots– TechnologyReview.com
{{Wood products
Excipients
Papermaking
Polysaccharides
E-number additives