In
mathematics, a topological space is, roughly speaking, a
geometrical space in which
closeness is defined but cannot necessarily be measured by a numeric
distance. More specifically, a topological space is a
set whose elements are called
points, along with an additional structure called a topology, which can be defined as a set of
neighbourhood
A neighbourhood (British English, Irish English, Australian English and Canadian English) or neighborhood (American English; American and British English spelling differences, see spelling differences) is a geographically localised community ...
s for each point that satisfy some
axioms formalizing the concept of closeness. There are several equivalent definitions of a topology, the most commonly used of which is the definition through
open sets, which is easier than the others to manipulate.
A topological space is the most general type of a
mathematical space
In mathematics, a space is a set (sometimes called a universe) with some added structure.
While modern mathematics uses many types of spaces, such as Euclidean spaces, linear spaces, topological spaces, Hilbert spaces, or probability spaces, ...
that allows for the definition of
limits
Limit or Limits may refer to:
Arts and media
* ''Limit'' (manga), a manga by Keiko Suenobu
* ''Limit'' (film), a South Korean film
* Limit (music), a way to characterize harmony
* "Limit" (song), a 2016 single by Luna Sea
* "Limits", a 2019 ...
,
continuity, and
connectedness
In mathematics, connectedness is used to refer to various properties meaning, in some sense, "all one piece". When a mathematical object has such a property, we say it is connected; otherwise it is disconnected. When a disconnected object can be s ...
. Common types of topological spaces include
Euclidean space
Euclidean space is the fundamental space of geometry, intended to represent physical space. Originally, that is, in Euclid's ''Elements'', it was the three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, but in modern mathematics there are Euclidean ...
s,
metric spaces and
manifolds.
Although very general, the concept of topological spaces is fundamental, and used in virtually every branch of modern mathematics. The study of topological spaces in their own right is called
point-set topology or
general topology
In mathematics, general topology is the branch of topology that deals with the basic set-theoretic definitions and constructions used in topology. It is the foundation of most other branches of topology, including differential topology, geometri ...
.
History
Around
1735
Events
January–March
* January 2 – Alexander Pope's poem '' Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot'' is published in London.
* January 8 – George Frideric Handel's opera ''Ariodante'' is premièred at the Royal Opera House in Covent ...
,
Leonhard Euler discovered the
formula relating the number of vertices, edges and faces of a
convex polyhedron
A convex polytope is a special case of a polytope, having the additional property that it is also a convex set contained in the n-dimensional Euclidean space \mathbb^n. Most texts. use the term "polytope" for a bounded convex polytope, and the wo ...
, and hence of a
planar graph. The study and generalization of this formula, specifically by
Cauchy (1789-1857) and
L'Huilier (1750-1840),
boosted the study of
topology
In mathematics, topology (from the Greek words , and ) is concerned with the properties of a geometric object that are preserved under continuous deformations, such as stretching, twisting, crumpling, and bending; that is, without closing ...
. In
1827
Events
January–March
* January 5 – The first regatta in Australia is held, taking place on Tasmania (called at the time ''Van Diemen's Land''), on the River Derwent at Hobart.
* January 15 – Furman University, founded in 1826, be ...
,
Carl Friedrich Gauss
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (; german: Gauß ; la, Carolus Fridericus Gauss; 30 April 177723 February 1855) was a German mathematician and physicist who made significant contributions to many fields in mathematics and science. Sometimes refer ...
published ''General investigations of curved surfaces'', which in section 3 defines the curved surface in a similar manner to the modern topological understanding: "A curved surface is said to possess continuous curvature at one of its points A, if the direction of all the straight lines drawn from A to points of the surface at an infinitely small distance from A are deflected infinitely little from one and the same plane passing through A."
Yet, "until
Riemann's work in the early 1850s, surfaces were always dealt with from a local point of view (as parametric surfaces) and topological issues were never considered". "
Möbius and
Jordan seem to be the first to realize that the main problem about the topology of (compact) surfaces is to find invariants (preferably numerical) to decide the equivalence of surfaces, that is, to decide whether two surfaces are
homeomorphic or not."
The subject is clearly defined by
Felix Klein
Christian Felix Klein (; 25 April 1849 – 22 June 1925) was a German mathematician and mathematics educator, known for his work with group theory, complex analysis, non-Euclidean geometry, and on the associations between geometry and grou ...
in his "
Erlangen Program
In mathematics, the Erlangen program is a method of characterizing geometries based on group theory and projective geometry. It was published by Felix Klein in 1872 as ''Vergleichende Betrachtungen über neuere geometrische Forschungen.'' It is nam ...
" (1872): the geometry invariants of arbitrary continuous transformation, a kind of geometry. The term "topology" was introduced by
Johann Benedict Listing
Johann Benedict Listing (25 July 1808 – 24 December 1882) was a German mathematician.
J. B. Listing was born in Frankfurt and died in Göttingen. He first introduced the term "topology" to replace the older term "geometria situs" (also called ...
in 1847, although he had used the term in correspondence some years earlier instead of previously used "Analysis situs". The foundation of this science, for a space of any dimension, was created by
Henri Poincaré. His first article on this topic appeared in
1894
Events January–March
* January 4 – A military alliance is established between the French Third Republic and the Russian Empire.
* January 7 – William Kennedy Dickson receives a patent for motion picture film in the United S ...
. In the 1930s,
James Waddell Alexander II and
Hassler Whitney
Hassler Whitney (March 23, 1907 – May 10, 1989) was an American mathematician. He was one of the founders of singularity theory, and did foundational work in manifolds, embeddings, immersions, characteristic classes, and geometric integratio ...
first expressed the idea that a surface is a topological space that is
locally like a Euclidean plane.
Topological spaces were first defined by
Felix Hausdorff
Felix Hausdorff ( , ; November 8, 1868 – January 26, 1942) was a German mathematician who is considered to be one of the founders of modern topology and who contributed significantly to set theory, descriptive set theory, measure theory, an ...
in 1914 in his seminal "Principles of Set Theory".
Metric spaces
In mathematics, a metric space is a set together with a notion of ''distance'' between its elements, usually called points. The distance is measured by a function called a metric or distance function. Metric spaces are the most general settin ...
had been defined earlier in 1906 by
Maurice Fréchet, though it was Hausdorff who popularised the term "metric space" ( de , metrischer Raum).
Definitions
The utility of the concept of a ''topology'' is shown by the fact that there are several equivalent definitions of this
mathematical structure. Thus one chooses the
axiomatization suited for the application. The most commonly used is that in terms of , but perhaps more intuitive is that in terms of and so this is given first.
Definition via neighbourhoods
This axiomatization is due to
Felix Hausdorff
Felix Hausdorff ( , ; November 8, 1868 – January 26, 1942) was a German mathematician who is considered to be one of the founders of modern topology and who contributed significantly to set theory, descriptive set theory, measure theory, an ...
.
Let
be a set; the elements of
are usually called , though they can be any mathematical object. We allow
to be empty. Let
be a
function
Function or functionality may refer to:
Computing
* Function key, a type of key on computer keyboards
* Function model, a structured representation of processes in a system
* Function object or functor or functionoid, a concept of object-oriente ...
assigning to each
(point) in
a non-empty collection
of subsets of
The elements of
will be called of
with respect to
(or, simply, ). The function
is called a
neighbourhood topology if the
axioms below are satisfied; and then
with
is called a topological space.
# If
is a neighbourhood of
(i.e.,
), then
In other words, each point belongs to every one of its neighbourhoods.
# If
is a subset of
and includes a neighbourhood of
then
is a neighbourhood of
I.e., every
superset
In mathematics, set ''A'' is a subset of a set ''B'' if all elements of ''A'' are also elements of ''B''; ''B'' is then a superset of ''A''. It is possible for ''A'' and ''B'' to be equal; if they are unequal, then ''A'' is a proper subset of ...
of a neighbourhood of a point
is again a neighbourhood of
# The
intersection of two neighbourhoods of
is a neighbourhood of
# Any neighbourhood
of
includes a neighbourhood
of
such that
is a neighbourhood of each point of
The first three axioms for neighbourhoods have a clear meaning. The fourth axiom has a very important use in the structure of the theory, that of linking together the neighbourhoods of different points of
A standard example of such a system of neighbourhoods is for the real line
where a subset
of
is defined to be a of a real number
if it includes an open interval containing
Given such a structure, a subset
of
is defined to be open if
is a neighbourhood of all points in
The open sets then satisfy the axioms given below. Conversely, when given the open sets of a topological space, the neighbourhoods satisfying the above axioms can be recovered by defining
to be a neighbourhood of
if
includes an open set
such that
Definition via open sets
A ''topology'' on a
set may be defined as a collection
of
subsets of , called open sets and satisfying the following axioms:
# The
empty set and
itself belong to
# Any arbitrary (finite or infinite)
union
Union commonly refers to:
* Trade union, an organization of workers
* Union (set theory), in mathematics, a fundamental operation on sets
Union may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Music
* Union (band), an American rock group
** ''Un ...
of members of
belongs to
# The intersection of any finite number of members of
belongs to
As this definition of a topology is the most commonly used, the set
of the open sets is commonly called a topology on
A subset
is said to be in
if its
complement
A complement is something that completes something else.
Complement may refer specifically to:
The arts
* Complement (music), an interval that, when added to another, spans an octave
** Aggregate complementation, the separation of pitch-clas ...
is an open set.
Examples of topologies
# Given
the
trivial or topology on
is the
family consisting of only the two subsets of
required by the axioms forms a topology of
# Given
the family
of six subsets of
forms another topology of
# Given
the
discrete topology
In topology, a discrete space is a particularly simple example of a topological space or similar structure, one in which the points form a , meaning they are ''isolated'' from each other in a certain sense. The discrete topology is the finest top ...
on
is the
power set
In mathematics, the power set (or powerset) of a set is the set of all subsets of , including the empty set and itself. In axiomatic set theory (as developed, for example, in the ZFC axioms), the existence of the power set of any set is post ...
of
which is the family
consisting of all possible subsets of
In this case the topological space
is called a .
# Given
the set of integers, the family
of all finite subsets of the integers plus
itself is a topology, because (for example) the union of all finite sets not containing zero is not finite but is also not all of
and so it cannot be in
Definition via closed sets
Using
de Morgan's laws
In propositional logic and Boolean algebra, De Morgan's laws, also known as De Morgan's theorem, are a pair of transformation rules that are both valid rules of inference. They are named after Augustus De Morgan, a 19th-century British math ...
, the above axioms defining open sets become axioms defining
closed sets:
# The empty set and
are closed.
# The intersection of any collection of closed sets is also closed.
# The union of any finite number of closed sets is also closed.
Using these axioms, another way to define a topological space is as a set
together with a collection
of closed subsets of
Thus the sets in the topology
are the closed sets, and their complements in
are the open sets.
Other definitions
There are many other equivalent ways to define a topological space: in other words the concepts of neighbourhood, or that of open or closed sets can be reconstructed from other starting points and satisfy the correct axioms.
Another way to define a topological space is by using the
Kuratowski closure axioms In topology and related branches of mathematics, the Kuratowski closure axioms are a set of axioms that can be used to define a topological structure on a set. They are equivalent to the more commonly used open set definition. They were first forma ...
, which define the closed sets as the
fixed points of an
operator on the
power set
In mathematics, the power set (or powerset) of a set is the set of all subsets of , including the empty set and itself. In axiomatic set theory (as developed, for example, in the ZFC axioms), the existence of the power set of any set is post ...
of
A
net
Net or net may refer to:
Mathematics and physics
* Net (mathematics), a filter-like topological generalization of a sequence
* Net, a linear system of divisors of dimension 2
* Net (polyhedron), an arrangement of polygons that can be folded up ...
is a generalisation of the concept of
sequence
In mathematics, a sequence is an enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed and order matters. Like a set, it contains members (also called ''elements'', or ''terms''). The number of elements (possibly infinite) is calle ...
. A topology is completely determined if for every net in
the set of its
accumulation points is specified.
Comparison of topologies
A variety of topologies can be placed on a set to form a topological space. When every set in a topology
is also in a topology
and
is a subset of
we say that
is than
and
is than
A proof that relies only on the existence of certain open sets will also hold for any finer topology, and similarly a proof that relies only on certain sets not being open applies to any coarser topology. The terms and are sometimes used in place of finer and coarser, respectively. The terms and are also used in the literature, but with little agreement on the meaning, so one should always be sure of an author's convention when reading.
The collection of all topologies on a given fixed set
forms a
complete lattice: if
is a collection of topologies on
then the
meet of
is the intersection of
and the
join of
is the meet of the collection of all topologies on
that contain every member of
Continuous functions
A
function
Function or functionality may refer to:
Computing
* Function key, a type of key on computer keyboards
* Function model, a structured representation of processes in a system
* Function object or functor or functionoid, a concept of object-oriente ...
between topological spaces is called
continuous if for every
and every neighbourhood
of
there is a neighbourhood
of
such that
This relates easily to the usual definition in analysis. Equivalently,
is continuous if the
inverse image
In mathematics, the image of a function is the set of all output values it may produce.
More generally, evaluating a given function f at each element of a given subset A of its domain produces a set, called the "image of A under (or through) ...
of every open set is open. This is an attempt to capture the intuition that there are no "jumps" or "separations" in the function. A
homeomorphism
In the mathematical field of topology, a homeomorphism, topological isomorphism, or bicontinuous function is a bijective and continuous function between topological spaces that has a continuous inverse function. Homeomorphisms are the isomor ...
is a
bijection that is continuous and whose
inverse is also continuous. Two spaces are called if there exists a homeomorphism between them. From the standpoint of topology, homeomorphic spaces are essentially identical.
In
category theory, one of the fundamental
categories
Category, plural categories, may refer to:
Philosophy and general uses
*Categorization, categories in cognitive science, information science and generally
*Category of being
* ''Categories'' (Aristotle)
*Category (Kant)
* Categories (Peirce)
* ...
is Top, which denotes the
category of topological spaces whose
objects are topological spaces and whose
morphisms are continuous functions. The attempt to classify the objects of this category (
up to homeomorphism
In the mathematical field of topology, a homeomorphism, topological isomorphism, or bicontinuous function is a bijective and continuous function between topological spaces that has a continuous inverse function. Homeomorphisms are the isomor ...
) by
invariants has motivated areas of research, such as
homotopy theory,
homology theory, and
K-theory
In mathematics, K-theory is, roughly speaking, the study of a ring generated by vector bundles over a topological space or scheme. In algebraic topology, it is a cohomology theory known as topological K-theory. In algebra and algebraic geometr ...
.
Examples of topological spaces
A given set may have many different topologies. If a set is given a different topology, it is viewed as a different topological space. Any set can be given the
discrete topology
In topology, a discrete space is a particularly simple example of a topological space or similar structure, one in which the points form a , meaning they are ''isolated'' from each other in a certain sense. The discrete topology is the finest top ...
in which every subset is open. The only convergent sequences or nets in this topology are those that are eventually constant. Also, any set can be given the
trivial topology In topology, a topological space with the trivial topology is one where the only open sets are the empty set and the entire space. Such spaces are commonly called indiscrete, anti-discrete, concrete or codiscrete. Intuitively, this has the conseque ...
(also called the indiscrete topology), in which only the empty set and the whole space are open. Every sequence and net in this topology converges to every point of the space. This example shows that in general topological spaces, limits of sequences need not be unique. However, often topological spaces must be
Hausdorff space
In topology and related branches of mathematics, a Hausdorff space ( , ), separated space or T2 space is a topological space where, for any two distinct points, there exist neighbourhoods of each which are disjoint from each other. Of the m ...
s where limit points are unique.
Metric spaces
Metric spaces embody a
metric, a precise notion of distance between points.
Every
metric space can be given a metric topology, in which the basic open sets are open balls defined by the metric. This is the standard topology on any
normed vector space
In mathematics, a normed vector space or normed space is a vector space over the real or complex numbers, on which a norm is defined. A norm is the formalization and the generalization to real vector spaces of the intuitive notion of "length ...
. On a finite-dimensional
vector space
In mathematics and physics, a vector space (also called a linear space) is a set whose elements, often called '' vectors'', may be added together and multiplied ("scaled") by numbers called ''scalars''. Scalars are often real numbers, but can ...
this topology is the same for all norms.
There are many ways of defining a topology on
the set of
real numbers. The standard topology on
is generated by the
open intervals. The set of all open intervals forms a
base or basis for the topology, meaning that every open set is a union of some collection of sets from the base. In particular, this means that a set is open if there exists an open interval of non zero radius about every point in the set. More generally, the
Euclidean space
Euclidean space is the fundamental space of geometry, intended to represent physical space. Originally, that is, in Euclid's ''Elements'', it was the three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, but in modern mathematics there are Euclidean ...
s
can be given a topology. In the usual topology on
the basic open sets are the open
balls. Similarly,
the set of
complex number
In mathematics, a complex number is an element of a number system that extends the real numbers with a specific element denoted , called the imaginary unit and satisfying the equation i^= -1; every complex number can be expressed in the fo ...
s, and
have a standard topology in which the basic open sets are open balls.
Proximity spaces
Uniform spaces
Function spaces
Cauchy spaces
Convergence spaces
Grothendieck sites
Other spaces
If
is a
filter
Filter, filtering or filters may refer to:
Science and technology
Computing
* Filter (higher-order function), in functional programming
* Filter (software), a computer program to process a data stream
* Filter (video), a software component tha ...
on a set
then
is a topology on
Many sets of
linear operators in
functional analysis are endowed with topologies that are defined by specifying when a particular sequence of functions converges to the zero function.
Any
local field
In mathematics, a field ''K'' is called a (non-Archimedean) local field if it is complete with respect to a topology induced by a discrete valuation ''v'' and if its residue field ''k'' is finite. Equivalently, a local field is a locally compact ...
has a topology native to it, and this can be extended to vector spaces over that field.
Every
manifold has a
natural topology since it is locally Euclidean. Similarly, every
simplex and every
simplicial complex inherits a natural topology from .
The
Zariski topology
In algebraic geometry and commutative algebra, the Zariski topology is a topology which is primarily defined by its closed sets. It is very different from topologies which are commonly used in the real or complex analysis; in particular, it is n ...
is defined algebraically on the
spectrum of a ring or an
algebraic variety
Algebraic varieties are the central objects of study in algebraic geometry, a sub-field of mathematics. Classically, an algebraic variety is defined as the set of solutions of a system of polynomial equations over the real or complex numbers. ...
. On
or
the closed sets of the Zariski topology are the
solution sets of systems of
polynomial equations.
A
linear graph has a natural topology that generalizes many of the geometric aspects of
graph
Graph may refer to:
Mathematics
*Graph (discrete mathematics), a structure made of vertices and edges
**Graph theory, the study of such graphs and their properties
*Graph (topology), a topological space resembling a graph in the sense of discre ...
s with
vertices and
edges.
The
Sierpiński space
In mathematics, the Sierpiński space (or the connected two-point set) is a finite topological space with two points, only one of which is closed.
It is the smallest example of a topological space which is neither trivial nor discrete. It is name ...
is the simplest non-discrete topological space. It has important relations to the
theory of computation
In theoretical computer science and mathematics, the theory of computation is the branch that deals with what problems can be solved on a model of computation, using an algorithm, how algorithmic efficiency, efficiently they can be solved or t ...
and semantics.
There exist numerous topologies on any given
finite set
In mathematics, particularly set theory, a finite set is a set that has a finite number of elements. Informally, a finite set is a set which one could in principle count and finish counting. For example,
:\
is a finite set with five elements. T ...
. Such spaces are called
finite topological spaces. Finite spaces are sometimes used to provide examples or counterexamples to conjectures about topological spaces in general.
Any set can be given the
cofinite topology
In mathematics, a cofinite subset of a set X is a subset A whose complement in X is a finite set. In other words, A contains all but finitely many elements of X. If the complement is not finite, but it is countable, then one says the set is cocoun ...
in which the open sets are the empty set and the sets whose complement is finite. This is the smallest
T1 topology on any infinite set.
Any set can be given the
cocountable topology The cocountable topology or countable complement topology on any set ''X'' consists of the empty set and all cocountable subsets of ''X'', that is all sets whose complement in ''X'' is countable. It follows that the only closed subsets are ''X'' and ...
, in which a set is defined as open if it is either empty or its complement is countable. When the set is uncountable, this topology serves as a counterexample in many situations.
The real line can also be given the
lower limit topology
In mathematics, the lower limit topology or right half-open interval topology is a topology defined on the set \mathbb of real numbers; it is different from the standard topology on \mathbb (generated by the open intervals) and has a number of inte ...
. Here, the basic open sets are the half open intervals
This topology on
is strictly finer than the Euclidean topology defined above; a sequence converges to a point in this topology if and only if it converges from above in the Euclidean topology. This example shows that a set may have many distinct topologies defined on it.
If
is an ordinal number, then the set
may be endowed with the order topology generated by the intervals
and
where
and
are elements of
Outer space
Outer space, commonly shortened to space, is the expanse that exists beyond Earth and its atmosphere and between celestial bodies. Outer space is not completely empty—it is a near-perfect vacuum containing a low density of particles, pred ...
of a
free group
In mathematics, the free group ''F'S'' over a given set ''S'' consists of all words that can be built from members of ''S'', considering two words to be different unless their equality follows from the group axioms (e.g. ''st'' = ''suu''−1' ...
consists of the so-called "marked metric graph structures" of volume 1 on
Topological constructions
Every subset of a topological space can be given the
subspace topology
In topology and related areas of mathematics, a subspace of a topological space ''X'' is a subset ''S'' of ''X'' which is equipped with a topology induced from that of ''X'' called the subspace topology (or the relative topology, or the induced to ...
in which the open sets are the intersections of the open sets of the larger space with the subset. For any
indexed family
In mathematics, a family, or indexed family, is informally a collection of objects, each associated with an index from some index set. For example, a ''family of real numbers, indexed by the set of integers'' is a collection of real numbers, wher ...
of topological spaces, the product can be given the
product topology
In topology and related areas of mathematics, a product space is the Cartesian product of a family of topological spaces equipped with a natural topology called the product topology. This topology differs from another, perhaps more natural-s ...
, which is generated by the inverse images of open sets of the factors under the
projection mappings. For example, in finite products, a basis for the product topology consists of all products of open sets. For infinite products, there is the additional requirement that in a basic open set, all but finitely many of its projections are the entire space.
A
quotient space is defined as follows: if
is a topological space and
is a set, and if
is a
surjective function
Function or functionality may refer to:
Computing
* Function key, a type of key on computer keyboards
* Function model, a structured representation of processes in a system
* Function object or functor or functionoid, a concept of object-oriente ...
, then the quotient topology on
is the collection of subsets of
that have open
inverse image
In mathematics, the image of a function is the set of all output values it may produce.
More generally, evaluating a given function f at each element of a given subset A of its domain produces a set, called the "image of A under (or through) ...
s under
In other words, the
quotient topology
In topology and related areas of mathematics, the quotient space of a topological space under a given equivalence relation is a new topological space constructed by endowing the quotient set of the original topological space with the quotient to ...
is the finest topology on
for which
is continuous. A common example of a quotient topology is when an
equivalence relation is defined on the topological space
The map
is then the natural projection onto the set of
equivalence classes.
The Vietoris topology on the set of all non-empty subsets of a topological space
named for
Leopold Vietoris, is generated by the following basis: for every
-tuple
of open sets in
we construct a basis set consisting of all subsets of the union of the
that have non-empty intersections with each
The Fell topology on the set of all non-empty closed subsets of a
locally compact Polish space
In the mathematical discipline of general topology, a Polish space is a separable completely metrizable topological space; that is, a space homeomorphic to a complete metric space that has a countable dense subset. Polish spaces are so named be ...
is a variant of the Vietoris topology, and is named after mathematician James Fell. It is generated by the following basis: for every
-tuple
of open sets in
and for every compact set
the set of all subsets of
that are disjoint from
and have nonempty intersections with each
is a member of the basis.
Classification of topological spaces
Topological spaces can be broadly classified,
up to homeomorphism, by their
topological properties
In topology and related areas of mathematics, a topological property or topological invariant is a property of a topological space that is invariant under homeomorphisms. Alternatively, a topological property is a proper class of topological space ...
. A topological property is a property of spaces that is invariant under homeomorphisms. To prove that two spaces are not homeomorphic it is sufficient to find a topological property not shared by them. Examples of such properties include
connectedness
In mathematics, connectedness is used to refer to various properties meaning, in some sense, "all one piece". When a mathematical object has such a property, we say it is connected; otherwise it is disconnected. When a disconnected object can be s ...
,
compactness, and various
separation axioms. For algebraic invariants see
algebraic topology
Algebraic topology is a branch of mathematics that uses tools from abstract algebra to study topological spaces. The basic goal is to find algebraic invariants that classify topological spaces up to homeomorphism, though usually most classify ...
.
Topological spaces with algebraic structure
For any
algebraic objects we can introduce the discrete topology, under which the algebraic operations are continuous functions. For any such structure that is not finite, we often have a natural topology compatible with the algebraic operations, in the sense that the algebraic operations are still continuous. This leads to concepts such as
topological group
In mathematics, topological groups are logically the combination of groups and topological spaces, i.e. they are groups and topological spaces at the same time, such that the continuity condition for the group operations connects these two st ...
s,
topological vector space
In mathematics, a topological vector space (also called a linear topological space and commonly abbreviated TVS or t.v.s.) is one of the basic structures investigated in functional analysis.
A topological vector space is a vector space that is als ...
s,
topological rings and
local field
In mathematics, a field ''K'' is called a (non-Archimedean) local field if it is complete with respect to a topology induced by a discrete valuation ''v'' and if its residue field ''k'' is finite. Equivalently, a local field is a locally compact ...
s.
Topological spaces with order structure
* Spectral: A space is ''
spectral'' if and only if it is the prime
spectrum of a ring (
Hochster theorem).
* Specialization preorder: In a space the
''specialization preorder'' (or ''canonical preorder'') is defined by
if and only if
where
denotes an operator satisfying the
Kuratowski closure axioms In topology and related branches of mathematics, the Kuratowski closure axioms are a set of axioms that can be used to define a topological structure on a set. They are equivalent to the more commonly used open set definition. They were first forma ...
.
See also
*
*
Complete Heyting algebra – The system of all open sets of a given topological space ordered by inclusion is a complete Heyting algebra.
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Citations
Bibliography
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Bredon, Glen E., ''Topology and Geometry'' (Graduate Texts in Mathematics), Springer; 1st edition (October 17, 1997). .
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Bourbaki, Nicolas; ''Elements of Mathematics: General Topology'', Addison-Wesley (1966).
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Čech, Eduard; ''Point Sets'', Academic Press (1969).
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Fulton, William, ''Algebraic Topology'', (Graduate Texts in Mathematics), Springer; 1st edition (September 5, 1997). .
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* Lipschutz, Seymour; ''Schaum's Outline of General Topology'', McGraw-Hill; 1st edition (June 1, 1968). .
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Munkres, James; ''Topology'', Prentice Hall; 2nd edition (December 28, 1999). .
* Runde, Volker; ''A Taste of Topology (Universitext)'', Springer; 1st edition (July 6, 2005). .
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Steen, Lynn A. and
Seebach, J. Arthur Jr.; ''
Counterexamples in Topology'', Holt, Rinehart and Winston (1970). .
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External links
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{{Authority control
General topology