Sino-Japanese Vocabulary

Sino-Japanese vocabulary, also known as refers to Japanese vocabulary that had originated in Chinese or were created from elements borrowed from Chinese. Some grammatical structures and sentence patterns can also be identified as Sino-Japanese. Sino-Japanese vocabulary is referred to in Japanese as , meaning 'Chinese words'.

''Kango'' is one of three broad categories into which the Japanese vocabulary is divided. The others are native Japanese vocabulary (''yamato kotoba'') and borrowings from other, mainly Western languages (''gairaigo''). It is estimated that approximately 60% of the words contained in the modern written Japanese dictionary are ''kango'', with about 18%–20% of words being used in common speech. The usage of such ''Kango'' words also increases when they are used in formal or literary contexts, or to express abstract or complex ideas.

''Kango'', the use of Chinese-derived words in Japanese, is to be distinguished from ''kanbun'', which is historical Literary Chinese written by local Japanese in Japan. Both ''kango'' in modern Japanese and classical ''kanbun'' have Sino-xenic linguistic and phonetic elements also found in Korean and Vietnamese: that is, they are "Sino-foreign", meaning that they are not purely Chinese but have been mixed with the native languages of their respective nations. Such words invented in Japanese, often with novel meanings, are called wasei-kango. Many of them were created during the Meiji Restoration to translate non-Asian concepts and have been reborrowed into Chinese.

''Kango'' is also to be distinguished from ''gairaigo'' of Chinese origin, namely words borrowed from modern Chinese dialects, some of which may be occasionally spelled with Chinese characters or ''kanji'' just like ''kango''. For example, (''Pekin'', "Beijing") which was borrowed from a modern Chinese dialect, is not ''kango'', but (''Hokkyō'', "Northern Capital", a name for Kyoto), which was created with Chinese elements, is ''kango''.

Background

Ancient China's enormous political and economic influence in the region had a deep effect on Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese and other Asian languages in East and Southeast Asia throughout history, in a manner somewhat similar the preeminent position that Greek and Latin had in European history. For example, the Middle Chinese word for gunpowder, (), is rendered as ''hwayak'' in Korean, and as ''kayaku'' in Japanese. At the time of their first contact, the existing Japanese language had no writing system, while the Chinese had a written language and a great deal of academic and scientific information, providing new concepts along with Chinese words to express them. Chinese became the language of science, learning, religion and government. The earliest written language to be used in Japan was literary Chinese, which has come to be called ''kanbun'' in this context. The ''kanbun'' writing system essentially required every literate Japanese to be competent in written Chinese, although it is unlikely that many Japanese people were then fluent in spoken Chinese. Chinese pronunciation was approximated in words borrowed from Chinese into Japanese; this Sino-Japanese vocabulary is still an important component of the Japanese language, and may be compared to words of Latin or Greek origin in English.

Chinese borrowings also significantly impacted Japanese phonology, leading to many new developments such as closed syllables (CV(N), not just CV) and length becoming a phonetic feature with the development of both long vowels and long consonants. (See Early Middle Japanese: Phonological developments for details.)

Grammar

Sino-Japanese words are almost exclusively nouns, of which many are verbal nouns or adjectival nouns, meaning that they can act as verbs or adjectives. Verbal nouns can be used as verbs by appending (e.g. ), while an adjectival noun uses instead of (usual for nouns) when acting attributively.

In Japanese, verbs and adjectives (that is, inflecting adjectives) are closed classes, and despite the large number of borrowings from Chinese, virtually none of these became inflecting verbs or adjectives, instead being conjugated periphrastically as above.

In addition to the basic verbal noun + ''suru'' form, verbal nouns with a single-character root often experienced sound changes, such as → → , as in , and some cases where the stem underwent sound change, as in , from .

Sino-Japanese and ''on'yomi''

The term kango is usually identified with , a system of pronouncing Chinese characters in a way that at one point approximated the original Chinese. On'yomi is also known as the 'Sino-Japanese reading', and is opposed to under which Chinese characters are assigned to, and read as, native Japanese vocabulary.

However, there are cases where the distinction between on'yomi and kun'yomi does not correspond to etymological origin. Chinese characters created in Japan, called , normally only have kun'yomi, but some kokuji do have on'yomi. One such character is (as in ''hataraku'', "to work"), which was given the on'yomi ''dō'' (from the on'yomi of its phonetic component, ) when used in compounds with other characters, e.g. in ''rōdō'' ("labor"). Similarly, the character ("gland") has the on'yomi ''sen'' (from the on'yomi of its phonetic component, ''sen'' "spring, fountain"), e.g. in ''hentōsen'' "tonsils"; it was intentionally created as a ''kango'' and does not have a kun'yomi at all. Although not originating in Chinese, both of these are regarded as 'Sino-Japanese'.

By the same token, that a word is the kun'yomi of a kanji is not a guarantee that the word is native to Japanese. There are a few Japanese words that, although they appear to have originated in borrowings from Chinese, have such a long history in the Japanese language that they are regarded as native and are thus treated as kun'yomi, e.g., ''uma'' "horse" and ''ume''. These words are not regarded as belonging to the Sino-Japanese vocabulary.

Words made in Japan

While much Sino-Japanese vocabulary was borrowed from Chinese, a considerable amount was created by the Japanese themselves as they coined new words using Sino-Japanese forms. These are known as ; compare to .

Many Japanese-created kango refer to uniquely Japanese concepts. Examples include , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and ''Bushidō'' (武士道)

Another miscellaneous group of words were coined from Japanese phrases or crossed over from ''kun'yomi'' to ''on'yomi''. Examples include ''henji'' ( meaning 'reply', from native ''kaerigoto'' 'reply'), ''rippuku'' ( 'become angry', based on ''hara ga tatsu'', literally 'belly/abdomen stands up'), ''shukka'' ( 'fire starts or breaks out', based on ''hi ga deru''), and ''ninja'' ( from ''shinobi-no-mono'' meaning 'person of stealth'). In Chinese, the same combinations of characters are often meaningless or have a different meaning. Even a humble expression like ''gohan'' ( or 'cooked rice') is a pseudo-''kango'' and not found in Chinese. One interesting example that gives itself away as a Japanese coinage is ''kaisatsu-guchi'' ( literally 'check ticket gate'), meaning the ticket barrier at a railway station.

More recently, the best-known example is the prolific numbers of kango coined during the Meiji era on the model of Classical Chinese to translate modern concepts imported from the West; when coined to translate a foreign term (rather than simply a new Japanese term), they are known as . Often they use corresponding morphemes to the original term, and thus qualify as calques. These terms include words for new technology, like ''denwa'' ('telephone'), and words for Western cultural categories which the Sinosphere had no exact analogue of on account of partitioning the semantic fields in question differently, such as ''kagaku'' ('science'), ''shakai'' ('society'), and ''tetsugaku'' ('philosophy'). Despite resistance from some contemporary Chinese intellectuals, many ''wasei kango'' were "back-borrowed" into Chinese around the turn of the 20th century. Such words from that time are thoroughly assimilated into the Chinese lexicon, but translations of foreign concepts between the two languages now occur independently of each other. These "back-borrowings" gave rise to Mandarin ''diànhuà'' (from ''denwa''), ''kēxué'' (from ''kagaku''), ''shèhuì'' (from ''shakai'') and ''zhéxué'' (from ''tetsugaku''). Since the sources for the ''wasei kango'' included ancient Chinese texts as well as contemporary English-Chinese dictionaries, some of the compounds—including ''bunka'' ('culture', Mandarin ''wénhuà'') and ''kakumei'' ('revolution', Mandarin ''gémìng'')—might have been independently coined by Chinese translators, had Japanese writers not coined them first. A similar process of reborrowing occurred in the modern Greek language, which took back words like τηλεγράφημα ''telegrafíma'' ('telegram') that were coined in English from Greek roots. Many of these words have also been borrowed into Korean and Vietnamese, forming (a modern Japanese) part of their Sino-Korean and Sino-Vietnamese vocabularies.

Alongside these translated terms, the foreign word may be directly borrowed as gairaigo. The resulting synonyms have varying use, usually with one or the other being more common. For example, ''yakyū'' and ''bēsubōru'' both translate as 'baseball', where the yakugo is more common. By contrast, ''teikyū'' and ''tenisu'' both translate as 'tennis', where the gairaigo is more common. Note that neither of these is a calque – they translate literally as 'field ball' and 'garden ball'. ('Base' is ''rui'', but ''ruikyū'' is an uncommon term for 'softball', which itself is normally ''sofutobōru'').

Finally, quite a few words appear to be Sino-Japanese but are varied in origin, written with — kanji assigned without regard for etymology. In many cases, the characters were chosen only to indicate pronunciation. For example, ''sewa'' ('care, concern') is written , using the ''on'yomi'' "se" + "wa" ('household/society' + 'talk'); although this word is not Sino-Japanese but a native Japanese word believed to derive from ''sewashii'', meaning 'busy' or 'troublesome'; the written form is simply an attempt to assign plausible-looking characters pronounced "se" and "wa". Other ''ateji'' of this type include ''mendō'' ('face' + 'fall down' = 'bother, trouble') and ''yabo'' ('fields' + 'livelihood' = 'uncouth'). (The first gloss after each character roughly translates the kanji; the second is the meaning of the word in Japanese.)

Phonetic correspondences between Modern Chinese and ''on'yomi''

At first glance, the ''on'yomi'' of many Sino-Japanese words do not resemble the Modern Standard Chinese pronunciations at all. Firstly, the borrowings occurred in three main waves, with the resulting sounds identified as , , and ; these were at different periods over several centuries, from different stages in Historical Chinese phonology, and thus source pronunciations differ substantially depending on time and place. Beyond this, there are two main reasons for the divergence between Modern Standard Chinese and Modern Standard Japanese pronunciations of cognate terms:
# Most Sino-Japanese words were borrowed in the 5th - 9th centuries AD, from Early Middle Chinese into Old Japanese. Both languages have changed significantly since then, and in different ways. This has resulted in the respective pronunciations becoming more and more divergent over time.
# Middle Chinese had a much more complex syllable structure than Old Japanese, as well as many more vowel and consonant differences. Many sounds and sound combinations had to be approximated in the borrowing process, sometimes with significant differences (e.g. final was represented as or ).

Nonetheless, the correspondences between the two are fairly regular. As a result, Sino-Japanese can be viewed as a (transformed) "snapshot" of an archaic period of the Chinese language, and as a result is very important for comparative linguists as it provides a large amount of evidence for the reconstruction of Middle Chinese.

The following is a rough guide to equivalencies between modern Chinese words and modern Sino-Japanese ''on'yomi'' readings.

Unless otherwise noted, in the list below, sounds shown in quotation marks or italics indicate the usage of non- IPA romanization such as Hanyu pinyin for Mandarin Chinese and Hepburn romanization for Japanese. Symbols shown within slashes or square brackets, like or , are IPA transcriptions.

# A major sound-shift has occurred in Mandarin since the time of modern contact with the West. Namely, the sounds written in Pinyin as "g" or "k" , when immediately preceding an "i", "y" or "ü" sound, became "j" (, similar to English "j") or "q" (, similar to English "ch"). This change is called palatalization. As a result, ''Peking'' () changed to ''Běijīng'', and ''Chungking'' () to ''Chóngqìng''. This shift did not occur in Sino-Japanese. Thus, Mandarin '' qì'' (, 'breath, air, spirit') corresponds to Japanese ''ki''. In some other varieties of Chinese, it is still pronounced as 'ki'. For example, in Southern Min is khì (Pe̍h-ōe-jī romanization). This is similar to the way the Latin , once always pronounced like an English , became closer to an English in Italian words where the is followed by an or , changing ''centum'' into ''cento'' .
# Old Japanese did not have an "-ng" or syllable ending, which is very common in Chinese. This sound was borrowed as either /i/ or /u/. The combinations /au/ and /eu/ later became "ō" and "yō", respectively, in Japanese. Thus, the Mandarin reading of "Tokyo" (; Eastern () Capital ()) is ''Dōngjīng''; this corresponds to Japanese ''Tōkyō'', with sound history for 京 being supposed approximately *kiæŋ -> kyau -> kyō (for comparison: Southern Min (colloquial) is ''kiaⁿ'' with a nasal diphthong). Another example is , former name for Seoul, which is ''Keijō'' in Japanese and ''Gyeongseong'' in Korean (which, did and does have syllables ending in ). is read "kei" (*kiæŋ -> kyei -> kei) in this case.
# As in the case of , the same character sometimes has multiple readings, e.g. "kyō" (Go-on) vs. "kei" ( Kan-on) vs. "kin" ( Tō-on). These stem from multiple phases of borrowing, which occurred at different times and from different source dialects and were carried out by different groups of people possibly speaking different dialects of Japanese. This means that the same word may have had different Chinese pronunciations, and even if not, the borrowers may have chosen different strategies to handle unfamiliar sounds. For example, the character 京 seems to have had an approximate pronunciation of /kjæŋ/ at the time of both the Go-on (5th - 6th century AD) and Kan-on (7th - 9th century AD) borrowings; however, the unfamiliar vowel /æ/ was represented by /a/ in the former case and /e/ in the latter. (This may also indicate different source pronunciations of the vowel.) In addition, the unfamiliar final was represented by /u/ in the former case but /i/ in the latter, agreeing in frontness vs. backness with the main vowel. By the time of the Tō-on borrowing (post-10th century), the pronunciation in Chinese had changed to /kiŋ/, thus the pronunciation "kin" was decided as the closest approximation.
# The vowels of Chinese sometimes correspond to Sino-Japanese in an apparently haphazard fashion. However, Mandarin "ao" often corresponds to Japanese "ō" (usually derived from earlier Sino-Japanese u, and Chinese empty rime (represented in pinyin with a "i") often corresponds to (a different sound, also represented with a "i" in Hepburn) in Japanese.
# The distinction between voiced and unvoiced consonants ( vs. or vs. ) has been lost in modern Mandarin and many other varieties of Chinese. The key exception is in Wu dialects (, e.g. Shanghainese). The Shanghainese voiced consonants match the Japanese readings nearly perfectly in terms of voicing. For example, (grape) is pronounced "budo" in Shanghainese and "budō" (< "budau") in Japanese (preserving the voiced consonants and , but "pútáo" in Mandarin. Incidentally, the rising tone of the Mandarin syllables may reflect the earlier voiced quality of the initial consonants.
# In modern Mandarin, all syllables end either in a vowel or in one of a small number of consonant sounds: "n", "ng", or occasionally "r". However, Middle Chinese, like several modern Chinese dialects (e.g. Yue, Hakka, Min), allowed several other final consonants including , , , and , and these are preserved in Sino-Japanese (except for -m, which is replaced by -n, as in 三, ''san'', "three"). However, because Japanese phonology does not allow these consonants to appear at the end of a syllable either, they are usually followed in Sino-Japanese by an additional "i" or "u" vowel, resulting in a second syllable (-''tsu'' or -''chi'' if from -''t'', -''ku'' or ''-ki ''if from -''k'', and -''pu'' if from -''p'', although ''-pu'' became ''-fu'' and then simply ''-u''). As a result, a one-syllable word in Chinese can become two syllables in Sino-Japanese. For example, Mandarin ''tiě'' (, 'iron') corresponds to Japanese . This is still pronounced with a final in Cantonese: (Vietnamese ''thiết''). Another example is Mandarin ''guó'' (, 'land'), from Early Middle Chinese /kwək/, corresponding to Japanese ''koku''.
#The consonant "f" in Mandarin corresponds to both "h" and "b" in Japanese. Early Middle Chinese had no /f/, but instead had /pj/ or /bj/ (in other reconstructions, or ). Japanese still reflects this ("h" was /p/ in Old Japanese). For example, Mandarin ''Fó'' ( 'Buddha') corresponds to Japanese ; both reflect Early Middle Chinese /bjut/ from a still older form /but/. In modern Southern Min Chinese, this character may be pronounced either utor ut( colloquial and literary respectively).
# In addition, as in the previous example, Old Japanese /p/ became modern "h". When a Middle Chinese word ended in /p/, this produced further complications in Japanese. For example, Middle Chinese 'ten' (Standard Mandarin "shí", Cantonese ) was borrowed as Old Japanese /zipu/. In time this went through a series of changes: /zipu/ > /zihu/ > /ziu/ > , cited in > "jū". Note that in some compounds, the word was directly borrowed as /zip-/ > "jip-"; hence "jippun" 'ten minutes' (or "juppun", influenced by "jū"), rather than "*jūfun".
# More complex is the archaic dento-labial nasal sound: The character ('strife, martial arts') was pronounced "mvu" in Late Middle Chinese. The sound is approximated in the Japanese pronunciations "bu" and "mu". However, that sound no longer exists in most modern Chinese dialects, except Southern Min "bú", and the character is pronounced "wǔ" in Mandarin, in Cantonese, "vu" in Hakka, Shanghainese, and Vietnamese.
# The modern Mandarin initial "r" usually corresponds to "ny" or "ni" in Japanese. At the time of borrowing, characters such as ('person') and ('day'), which have an initial "r" sound in modern Mandarin, began with a palatal nasal consonant closely approximating French and Italian ''gn'' and Spanish ''ñ''. (This distinction is still preserved in some Chinese varieties, such as Hakka and Shanghainese, as well as Vietnamese.) Thus Mandarin ''Rìběn'' (, Japan) corresponds to Japanese ''Nippon''. This is also why the character , pronounced in Middle Chinese, is pronounced "nin" in some contexts, as in , and "jin" in others, such as — approximating its more modern pronunciation. In Wu dialects, including Shanghainese, ('person') and ('two') are still pronounced "nin" and "ni", respectively. In Southern Min (especially Zhangzhou accent), is "jîn" (literary pronunciation) which is practically identical to Japanese On'yomi.
# In Middle Chinese, ('five') and similar characters were pronounced with a velar nasal consonant, "ng" ( �, as its initial. This is no longer true in modern Mandarin, but it remains the case in other Chinese dialects such as Cantonese () and Shanghainese. Japanese approximates the Middle Chinese */ng/ with "g" or "go"; thus becomes "go". In Southern Min, it is pronounced /gɔ/ (colloquial) or /ŋɔ/ (literary) while in the Fuzhou dialect it is pronounced "ngu". In addition, some Japanese dialects have �for medial ''g''.
# The Mandarin "hu" sound (as in "huá" or "huī") does not exist in Japanese and is usually omitted, whereas the Mandarin "l" sound becomes "r" in Japanese. Thus, Mandarin '' Huángbò'' () corresponds to Japanese ''Ōbaku'', and '' Rúlái'' () and ''lamian'' (拉麵) to ''Nyorai'' and '' ramen'' respectively.
# Mandarin "h", usually from Middle Chinese or will often correspond to "k" or "g" in Japanese, as Old Japanese lacked velar fricatives: Modern Japanese is derived from Old Japanese , which descended in most cases from a Proto-Japonic */p/; however, this lack of velar fricatives in Old Japanese helps preserve the voiced-voiceless contrast between Middle Chinese and that Mandarin, Cantonese, Korean and Vietnamese has lost. Mandarin "z" will often correspond to Japanese "j"; these are also changes in Chinese. Thus, Mandarin '' hànzì'' () corresponds to Japanese ''kanji'', ''hànwén'' (, Chinese written language) to ''kanbun'', and ''zuìhòu'' (最後 'last') to ''saigo''.

Chart of correspondences

Note:
* MC: Middle Chinese
* Pinyin: Modern Standard Chinese (Mandarin) in its official spelling. Multiple outcomes for MC initials (e.g. MC /ɡ/ > Pinyin g,j,k,q) are primarily due to two reasons:
** MC voiced stops/affricates become Mandarin aspirated stops/affricates (p,t,k,etc.) when the syllable had the MC first tone (Mandarin first/second tones), unaspirated stops/affricates (b,d,g,etc.) otherwise.
** Early Mandarin velar obstruents (g,k,h) and alveolar sibilants (z,c,s) become palatal obstruents (j,q,x) when a front vowel or glide followed.
* Go: , from the Northern and Southern dynasties China or Baekje Korea during the 5th and 6th centuries. Go means Wu.
* Kan: , from the Tang dynasty during the 7th to 9th century.
* : Zen Buddhist borrowings from the Song dynasty (10th to 13th century) and after.

Initials:

Finals:

Later developments of diphthongs:
* → →
* →
* →
* →
* →

Examples

Notes:
* Middle Chinese, Mandarin Pinyin, Go-on, Kan-on: See above.
* Middle Chinese reconstruction is according to William H. Baxter. His phonetic notation is used, along with IPA when different. Syllables are tone 1 unless otherwise indicated. Se
An Etymological Dictionary of Common Chinese Characters
for more info.

See also

*Sino-Xenic pronunciations
* List of Chinese–Japanese false friends
* Wasei-kango
*Wasei-eigo
* Sino-Korean vocabulary
* Singdarin
* Classical compounds in European languages
*
*

Notes

References

Further reading

*
*

External links

Analysis of regularity in Japanese phonetic series, with lists of most useful Kanji components for predicting ''on'yomi''

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sino-Japanese Vocabulary
Japanese phonology
Japanese vocabulary
Archaic Japanese language
Japanese