History
Origins (2006–2012)
Evolution (2012–2019)
Rust'sMozilla layoffs and Rust Foundation (2020–present)
In August 2020, Mozilla laid off 250 of its 1,000 employees worldwide as part of a corporate restructuring caused by theSyntax and semantics
Hello World program
Below is aprintln!
Keywords and control flow
In Rust, blocks of code are delimited by curly brackets, and if
, else
, while
''While'' is a word in the English language that functions both as a noun and as a subordinating conjunction. Its meaning varies largely based on its intended function, position in the phrase and even the writer or speaker's regional dialec ...
, and for
For or FOR may refer to:
English language
*For, a preposition
*For, a complementizer
*For, a grammatical conjunction
Science and technology
* Fornax, a constellation
* for loop, a programming language statement
* Frame of reference, in physic ...
. Expression blocks
Despite its syntactic resemblance to C and C++, Rust is more significantly influenced byif
expression also takes the place of C's ternary conditional. A function does not need to end with a return
expression: if the semicolon is omitted, the value of the last expression in the function will be used as the ..=
operator to create an inclusive range:
Types
Rust is strongly typed andunsafe
block. Rust instead uses an Option
type, which has two variants, Some(T)
(which indicates that a value is present) and None
(analogous to the null pointer). Option
implements a "null pointer optimization" avoiding any overhead for types which cannot have a null value (references or the NonZero
types, for example). Option
values must be handled using syntactic sugar, such as the if let
construction, in order to access the inner value (in this case, a string):
Generics
More advanced features in Rust include the use ofsum
are instantiated with the specific types that are needed by the code (in this case, sum of integers and sum of floats).
Generics can be used in functions to allow implementing a behavior for different types without repeating the same code. Generic functions can be written in relation to other generics, without knowing the actual type.
Ownership and lifetimes
Rust's ownership system consists of rules that ensure memory safety without using a garbage collector. In the system, each value in Rust must be attached to a variable called the owner of that value, and every value must have exactly one owner. Values are moved between different owners through assignment or passing a value as a function parameter. Values can also be ''borrowed,'' meaning that they are temporarily passed to a different function before being returned to the owner. With these rules, Rust can prevent the creation and use of dangling pointers:drop
function. This structure enforces the so-called resource acquisition is initialization (RAII) design pattern, in which resources, like file descriptors or network sockets, are tied to the lifetime of an object: when the object is dropped, the resource is closed.
The example below parses some configuration options from a string and creates a struct containing the options. The struct only contains references to the data, so for the struct to remain valid, the data referred to by the struct needs to be valid as well. The function signature for parse_config
specifies this relationship explicitly. In this example, the explicit lifetimes are unnecessary in newer Rust versions due to lifetime elision, which is an algorithm that automatically assigns lifetimes to functions if they are trivial.
Features
Rust aims to support concurrent systems programming, which has inspired a feature set with an emphasis on safety, control of memory layout, andMemory safety
Rust is designed to beNULL
, such as in linked list or Some
value or None
. Rust has added syntax to manage unsafe
keyword. Unsafe code may also be used for low-level functionality like volatile memory access, architecture-specific intrinsics, Memory management
Rust does not use automated garbage collection. Memory and other resources are managed through the "resource acquisition is initialization" convention, with optional&
symbol do not involve run-time reference counting. The safety and validity of the underlying pointers is verified at compile time, preventing dangling pointers and other forms of &T
from unique, mutable references of the form &mut T
. A mutable reference can be coerced to an immutable reference, but not vice versa.
Types and polymorphism
Rust's type system supports a mechanism called traits, inspired byAdd
trait because they can both be added; and any type that can be converted to a string implements the Display
or Debug
traits. This facility is known as ad hoc polymorphism.
Rust uses type inference for variables declared with the keyword let
. Such variables do not require a value to be initially assigned to determine their type. A compile time error results if any branch of code leaves the variable without an assignment. Variables assigned multiple times must be marked with the keyword mut
(short for mutable).
A function can be given generic add_one
function might require the type to implement Add
. This means that a generic function can be type-checked as soon as it is defined. The implementation of Rust generics is similar to the typical implementation of C++ templates: a separate copy of the code is generated for each instantiation. This is called monomorphization and contrasts with the type erasure scheme typically used in Java and Haskell. Type erasure is also available in Rust via the keyword dyn
(short for dynamic). Because monomorphization duplicates the code for each type used, it can result in more optimized code for specific use cases, but compile time and size of the output binary are also increased.
In Rust, user-defined types are created with the struct
or enum
keywords. The struct
keyword is used to denote a enum
s can take on different variants in runtime, with its capabilities similiar to algebraic data types found in functional programming languages. Both structs and enums can contain fields with different types. The impl
keyword can define methods for the types (data and functions are defined separately) or implement a trait for the types. Traits are used to restrict generic parameters and because traits can provide a type with more methods than the user defined. For example, the trait Iterator
requires that the next
method be defined for the type. Once the next
method is defined the trait provides common functional helper methods over the iterator like map
or filter
.
Type aliases, including generic arguments, can also be defined with the type
keyword.
The type system within Rust is based around implementations, traits and structured types. Implementations fulfill a role similar to that of classes within other languages and are defined with the keyword impl
. Traits provide inheritance and polymorphism; they allow methods to be defined and mixed in to implementations. Structured types are used to define fields. Implementations and traits cannot define fields themselves, and only traits can provide inheritance. Among other benefits, this prevents the Trait objects
Rust traits are implemented using static dispatch, meaning that the type of all values is known at compile time; however, Rust also uses a feature known as ''trait objects'' to accomplish dynamic dispatch (also known asBox
where Tr
is a trait. For example, it is possible to create a list of objects which each can be printed out as follows: let v: Vec> = vec! ox::new(3), Box::new(5.0), Box::new("hi")/code>. Trait objects are dynamically sized; however, prior to the 2018 edition, the dyn
keyword was optional. A trait object is essentially a fat pointer that include a pointer as well as additional information about what type the pointer is.
Macros
It is possible to extend the Rust language using macros.
Declarative macros
A declarative macro (also called a "macro by example") is a macro that uses pattern matching to determine its expansion.
Procedural macros
Procedural macros use Rust functions that are compiled before other components to run and modify the compiler's input token
Token may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
* Token, a game piece or counter, used in some games
* The Tokens, a vocal music group
* Tolkien Black, a recurring character on the animated television series ''South Park,'' formerly known as ...
stream. They are generally more flexible than declarative macros, but are more difficult to maintain due to their complexity.
Procedural macros come in three flavors:
* Function-like macros custom!(...)
* Derive macros # erive(CustomDerive)/code>
* Attribute macros # ustom_attribute/code>
The println!
macro is an example of a function-like macro and serde_derive
is a commonly used library for generating code
for reading and writing data in many formats such as JSON
JSON (JavaScript Object Notation, pronounced ; also ) is an open standard file format and data interchange format that uses human-readable text to store and transmit data objects consisting of attribute–value pairs and arrays (or other s ...
. Attribute macros are commonly used for language bindings such as the extendr
library for Rust bindings to R.
The following code shows the use of the Serialize
, Deserialize
and Debug
derive procedural macros
to implement JSON reading and writing as well as the ability to format a structure for debugging.
use serde_json::;
# erive(Serialize, Deserialize, Debug)struct Point
fn main()
Interface with C and C++
Rust has a foreign function interface (FFI) that can be used both to call code written in languages such as C from Rust and to call Rust code from those languages. Rust also has a library, CXX, for calling to or from C++. Rust and C differ in how they lay out structs in memory, so Rust structs may be given a #epr(C)
EPR may refer to:
Science and technology
* EPR (nuclear reactor), European Pressurised-Water Reactor
* EPR paradox (Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox), in physics
* Earth potential rise, in electrical engineering
* East Pacific Rise, a mid-ocean ...
/code> attribute, forcing the same layout as the equivalent C struct.
Components
Besides the compiler and standard library, the Rust ecosystem includes additional components for software development. Component installation is typically managed by , a Rust toolchain
In software, a toolchain is a set of programming tools that is used to perform a complex software development task or to create a software product, which is typically another computer program or a set of related programs. In general, the tools for ...
installer developed by the Rust project.
Standard library
The Rust standard library is split into three crates: , , and . When a project is annotated with the crate-level attribute , the crate is excluded.
Cargo
Cargo is Rust's build system and package manager
A package manager or package-management system is a collection of software tools that automates the process of installing, upgrading, configuring, and removing computer programs for a computer in a consistent manner.
A package manager deals w ...
. Cargo downloads, compiles, distributes, and uploads packages, called ''crates'', maintained in the official registry. Cargo also acts as a front-end for Clippy and other Rust components.
By default, Cargo sources its dependencies from the user-contributed registry ''crates.io'', but Git repositories and crates in the local filesystem and other external sources can be specified as dependencies, too.
Rustfmt
Rustfmt is a code formatter for Rust. It takes Rust source code as input and changes the whitespace and indentation to produce code formatted in accordance to a common style
Style is a manner of doing or presenting things and may refer to:
* Architectural style, the features that make a building or structure historically identifiable
* Design, the process of creating something
* Fashion, a prevailing mode of clothing ...
unless specified otherwise. Rustfmt can be invoked as a standalone program or on a Rust project through Cargo.
Clippy
Clippy is Rust's built-in linting tool to improve the correctness, performance, and readability of Rust code. It was created in 2014 and named after the eponymous Microsoft Office feature. As of 2021, Clippy has more than 450 rules, which can be browsed online and filtered by category.
Versioning system
Following Rust 1.0, new features are developed in ''nightly'' versions which release on a daily basis. During each release cycle of six weeks, changes on nightly versions are released to beta, while changes from the previous beta version are released to a new stable version.
Every three years, a new "edition" is produced. Editions are released to provide an easy reference point for changes due to the frequent nature of Rust's ''train release schedule,'' and to provide a window to make limited breaking changes. Editions are largely compatible and migration to a new edition is assisted with automated tooling.
IDE support
The most popular language server for Rust is ''rust-analyzer''. The original language server, ''RLS'' was officially deprecated in favor of ''rust-analyzer'' in July 2022. These projects provide IDEs and text editor
A text editor is a type of computer program that edits plain text. Such programs are sometimes known as "notepad" software (e.g. Windows Notepad). Text editors are provided with operating systems and software development packages, and can be u ...
s with more information about a Rust project, with basic features including autocompletion, and display of compilation errors while editing.
Performance
Rust aims "to be as efficient and portable as idiomatic C++, without sacrificing safety". Rust does not perform garbage collection, which allows it to be more efficient and performant than other memory-safe languages.
Rust provides two "modes": safe and unsafe. The safe mode is the "normal" one, in which most Rust is written. In unsafe mode, the developer is responsible for the correctness of the code, making it possible to create applications which require low-level features. It has been demonstrated empirically that unsafe Rust is not always more performant than safe Rust, and can even be slower in some cases.
Many of Rust's features are so-called ''zero-cost abstractions'', meaning they are optimized away at compile time and incur no runtime penalty. The ownership and borrowing system permits zero-copy
"Zero-copy" describes computer operations in which the CPU does not perform the task of copying data from one memory area to another or in which unnecessary data copies are avoided. This is frequently used to save CPU cycles and memory bandwid ...
implementations for some performance-sensitive tasks, such as parsing
Parsing, syntax analysis, or syntactic analysis is the process of analyzing a string of symbols, either in natural language, computer languages or data structures, conforming to the rules of a formal grammar. The term ''parsing'' comes from Lati ...
. Static dispatch is used by default to eliminate method call
A method in object-oriented programming (OOP) is a procedure associated with a message and an object. An object consists of ''state data'' and ''behavior''; these compose an ''interface'', which specifies how the object may be utilized by any of ...
s, with the exception of methods called on dynamic trait objects. The compiler also uses inline expansion
In computing, inline expansion, or inlining, is a manual or compiler optimization that replaces a function call site with the body of the called function. Inline expansion is similar to macro expansion, but occurs during compilation, without ch ...
to eliminate function calls and statically dispatched method invocations entirely.
Since Rust utilizes LLVM, any performance improvements in LLVM also carry over to Rust. Unlike C and C++, Rust allows re-organizing struct and enum element ordering. This can be done to reduce the size of structures in memory, for better memory alignment, and to improve cache access efficiency.
Adoption
According to the Stack Overflow
In software, a stack overflow occurs if the call stack pointer exceeds the stack bound. The call stack may consist of a limited amount of address space, often determined at the start of the program. The size of the call stack depends on many facto ...
Developer Survey in 2022, 9% of respondents have recently done extensive development in Rust. The survey has additionally named Rust the "most loved programming language" every year from 2016 to 2022 (inclusive), a ranking based on the number of current developers who express an interest in continuing to work in the same language. In 2022, Rust tied with Python for "most wanted technology" with 18% of developers not currently working in Rust expressing an interest in doing so.
Rust has been adopted for components at a number of major software companies, including Amazon
Amazon most often refers to:
* Amazons, a tribe of female warriors in Greek mythology
* Amazon rainforest, a rainforest covering most of the Amazon basin
* Amazon River, in South America
* Amazon (company), an American multinational technolog ...
, Discord, Dropbox
Dropbox is a file hosting service operated by the American company Dropbox, Inc., headquartered in San Francisco, California, U.S. that offers cloud storage, file synchronization, personal cloud, and client software. Dropbox was founded in 2 ...
, Facebook
Facebook is an online social media and social networking service owned by American company Meta Platforms. Founded in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg with fellow Harvard College students and roommates Eduardo Saverin, Andrew McCollum, Dustin ...
(Meta
Meta (from the Greek μετά, '' meta'', meaning "after" or "beyond") is a prefix meaning "more comprehensive" or "transcending".
In modern nomenclature, ''meta''- can also serve as a prefix meaning self-referential, as a field of study or ende ...
), Google (Alphabet
An alphabet is a standardized set of basic written graphemes (called letters) that represent the phonemes of certain spoken languages. Not all writing systems represent language in this way; in a syllabary, each character represents a s ...
), and Microsoft.
Web browsers and services
* Firefox
Mozilla Firefox, or simply Firefox, is a free and open-source web browser developed by the Mozilla Foundation and its subsidiary, the Mozilla Corporation. It uses the Gecko rendering engine to display web pages, which implements current and ...
has two projects written in Rust: the Servo parallel browser engine
A browser engine (also known as a layout engine or rendering engine) is a core software component of every major web browser. The primary job of a browser engine is to transform HTML documents and other resources of a web page into an interactiv ...
developed by Mozilla in collaboration with Samsung
The Samsung Group (or simply Samsung) ( ko, 삼성 ) is a South Korean multinational manufacturing conglomerate headquartered in Samsung Town, Seoul, South Korea. It comprises numerous affiliated businesses, most of them united under the ...
; and Quantum, which is composed of several sub-projects for improving Mozilla's Gecko
Geckos are small, mostly carnivorous lizards that have a wide distribution, found on every continent except Antarctica. Belonging to the infraorder Gekkota, geckos are found in warm climates throughout the world. They range from .
Geckos ar ...
browser engine.
* OpenDNS
OpenDNS is an American company providing Domain Name System (DNS) resolution services—with features such as phishing protection, optional content filtering, and DNS lookup in its DNS servers—and a cloud computing security product suite, Umbr ...
uses Rust in some of its internal projects.
* Deno, a secure runtime for JavaScript
JavaScript (), often abbreviated as JS, is a programming language that is one of the core technologies of the World Wide Web, alongside HTML and CSS. As of 2022, 98% of Website, websites use JavaScript on the Client (computing), client side ...
and TypeScript
TypeScript is a free and open source programming language developed and maintained by Microsoft. It is a strict syntactical superset of JavaScript and adds optional static typing to the language. It is designed for the development of large appl ...
, is built with V8, Rust, and Tokio
Tokio may refer to:
* , the capital of Japan, used primarily in non-English-speaking countries
may also refer to:
Music
* Tokio (band), a Japanese pop/rock band
** ''Tokio'' (album), their debut album
* Tokio Hotel, a German rock band
* Toki ...
.
* Amazon Web Services
Amazon Web Services, Inc. (AWS) is a subsidiary of Amazon.com, Amazon that provides Software as a service, on-demand cloud computing computing platform, platforms and Application programming interface, APIs to individuals, companies, and gover ...
has multiple projects written in Rust, including Firecracker
A firecracker (cracker, noise maker, banger) is a small explosive device primarily designed to produce a large amount of noise, especially in the form of a loud bang, usually for celebration or entertainment; any visual effect is incidental to ...
, a virtualization solution, and Bottlerocket, a Linux distribution
A Linux distribution (often abbreviated as distro) is an operating system made from a software collection that includes the Linux kernel and, often, a package management system. Linux users usually obtain their operating system by downloading on ...
and containerization
Containerization is a system of intermodal freight transport using intermodal containers (also called shipping containers and ISO containers). Containerization is also referred as "Container Stuffing" or "Container Loading", which is the p ...
solution.
* Cloudflare
Cloudflare, Inc. is an American content delivery network and DDoS mitigation company, founded in 2009. It primarily acts as a reverse proxy between a website's visitor and the Cloudflare customer's hosting provider. Its headquarters are in San ...
's implementations of the QUIC
QUIC (pronounced "quick") is a general-purpose transport layer network protocol initially designed by Jim Roskind at Google, implemented, and deployed in 2012, announced publicly in 2013 as experimentation broadened, and described at an IETF meet ...
protocol and firewall rules are written in Rust.
* Arti is a Rust implementation of Tor server by The Tor Project
The Tor Project, Inc. is a Seattle-based 501(c)(3) research-education nonprofit organization founded by computer scientists Roger Dingledine, Nick Mathewson and five others. The Tor Project is primarily responsible for maintaining software for ...
.
Operating systems
* Redox
Redox (reduction–oxidation, , ) is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of substrate (chemistry), substrate change. Oxidation is the loss of Electron, electrons or an increase in the oxidation state, while reduction ...
is a "full-blown Unix-like operating system" including a microkernel
In computer science, a microkernel (often abbreviated as μ-kernel) is the near-minimum amount of software that can provide the mechanisms needed to implement an operating system (OS). These mechanisms include low-level address space management, ...
written in Rust.
* Theseus, an experimental operating system described as having "intralingual design": leveraging Rust's programming language mechanisms for implementing the OS.
* The Google Fuchsia
''Fuchsia'' () is a genus of flowering plants that consists mostly of shrubs or small trees. The first to be scientifically described, ''Fuchsia triphylla'', was discovered on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic ...
capability-based security
Capability-based security is a concept in the design of secure computing systems, one of the existing security models. A capability (known in some systems as a key) is a communicable, unforgeable token of authority. It refers to a value that refe ...
operating system has components written in Rust, including a TCP/IP
The Internet protocol suite, commonly known as TCP/IP, is a framework for organizing the set of communication protocols used in the Internet and similar computer networks according to functional criteria. The foundational protocols in the suit ...
library.
* Stratis is a file system
In computing, file system or filesystem (often abbreviated to fs) is a method and data structure that the operating system uses to control how data is stored and retrieved. Without a file system, data placed in a storage medium would be one lar ...
manager written in Rust for Fedora
A fedora () is a hat with a soft brim and indented crown.Kilgour, Ruth Edwards (1958). ''A Pageant of Hats Ancient and Modern''. R. M. McBride Company. It is typically creased lengthwise down the crown and "pinched" near the front on both sides ...
and RHEL
Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) is a commercial open-source Linux distribution developed by Red Hat for the commercial market. Red Hat Enterprise Linux is released in server versions for x86-64, Power ISA, ARM64, and IBM Z and a desktop vers ...
.
* is a Unix/Linux command line alternative to written in Rust.
* Rust for Linux is a patch series begun in 2021 to add Rust support to the Linux kernel.
* LynxOS-178 and LynxElement unikernel support Rust in their certified toolchain, as of late 2022.
Other notable projects and platforms
* Discord uses Rust for portions of its backend, as well as client-side video encoding, to augment the core infrastructure written in Elixir
ELIXIR (the European life-sciences Infrastructure for biological Information) is an initiative that will allow life science laboratories across Europe to share and store their research data as part of an organised network. Its goal is to bring t ...
.
* Microsoft Azure IoT Edge, a platform used to run Azure services and artificial intelligence on IoT devices, has components implemented in Rust.
* Polkadot
Red polka dots on a yellow background
Girl wearing polka dot dress
Polish ceramics
German ceramics
Polka dot is a pattern consisting of an array of large filled circles of the same size.
Polka dots are commonly seen on children's clothing ...
is an open source blockchain
A blockchain is a type of distributed ledger technology (DLT) that consists of growing lists of records, called ''blocks'', that are securely linked together using cryptography. Each block contains a cryptographic hash of the previous block, ...
platform and cryptocurrency
A cryptocurrency, crypto-currency, or crypto is a digital currency designed to work as a medium of exchange through a computer network that is not reliant on any central authority, such as a government or bank, to uphold or maintain it. It ...
written in Rust.
* Ruffle is an open-source SWF
SWF ( ) is an Adobe Flash file format used for multimedia, vector graphics and ActionScript.Open Screen Pr ...
emulator written in Rust.
* TerminusDB, an open source graph database
A graph database (GDB) is a database that uses graph structures for semantic queries with nodes, edges, and properties to represent and store data. A key concept of the system is the ''graph'' (or ''edge'' or ''relationship''). The graph relat ...
designed for collaboratively building and curating knowledge graph
The Google Knowledge Graph is a knowledge base from which Google serves relevant information in an infobox beside its search results. This allows the user to see the answer in a glance. The data is generated automatically from a variety of so ...
s, is written in Prolog
Prolog is a logic programming language associated with artificial intelligence and computational linguistics.
Prolog has its roots in first-order logic, a formal logic, and unlike many other programming languages, Prolog is intended primarily a ...
and Rust.
Community
Conferences
Rust's official website lists online forums, messaging platforms, and in-person meetups for the Rust community. Conferences dedicated to Rust development include:
* RustConf: an annual conference in Portland, Oregon
Portland (, ) is a port city in the Pacific Northwest and the largest city in the U.S. state of Oregon. Situated at the confluence of the Willamette and Columbia rivers, Portland is the county seat of Multnomah County, the most populou ...
. Held annually since 2016 (except in 2020 and 2021 because of the COVID-19 pandemic
The COVID-19 pandemic, also known as the coronavirus pandemic, is an ongoing global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The novel virus was first identified ...
).
* Rust Belt Rust: a #rustlang conference in the Rust Belt
The Rust Belt is a region of the United States that experienced industrial decline starting in the 1950s. The U.S. manufacturing sector as a percentage of the U.S. GDP peaked in 1953 and has been in decline since, impacting certain regions a ...
* RustFest: Europe's @rustlang conference
* RustCon Asia
* Rust LATAM
* Oxidize Global
Rust Foundation
The Rust Foundation is a non-profit
A nonprofit organization (NPO) or non-profit organisation, also known as a non-business entity, not-for-profit organization, or nonprofit institution, is a legal entity organized and operated for a collective, public or social benefit, in co ...
membership organization incorporated in United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., federal district, five ma ...
, with the primary purposes of backing the technical project as a legal entity
In law, a legal person is any person or 'thing' (less ambiguously, any legal entity) that can do the things a human person is usually able to do in law – such as enter into contracts, sue and be sued, own property, and so on. The reason fo ...
and helping to manage the trademark and infrastructure assets.
It was established on February 8, 2021, with five founding corporate members (Amazon Web Services, Huawei, Google, Microsoft, and Mozilla). The foundation's board is chaired by Shane Miller. Starting in late 2021, its Executive Director and CEO is Rebecca Rumbul. Prior to this, Ashley Williams was interim executive director.
Governance teams
The Rust project is composed of ''teams'' that are responsible for different subareas of the development. For example, the Core team is responsible for "managing the overall direction of Rust, subteam leadership, and any cross-cutting issues," the Compiler team is responsible for "developing and managing compiler internals and optimizations," and the Language team is responsible for "designing and helping to implement new language features," according to the official website.
See also
* Comparison of programming languages
* History of programming languages
* List of programming languages
This is an index to notable programming languages, in current or historical use. Dialects of BASIC, esoteric programming languages, and markup languages are not included. A programming language does not need to be imperative or Turing-complete, ...
* List of programming languages by type
Notes
References
Book sources
*
Others
Further reading
*
External links
*
{{Authority control
2010 software
Articles with example code
Concurrent programming languages
Free compilers and interpreters
Free software projects
Functional languages
High-level programming languages
Mozilla
Multi-paradigm programming languages
Pattern matching programming languages
Procedural programming languages
Programming languages created in 2010
Software using the Apache license
Software using the MIT license
Statically typed programming languages
Systems programming languages