Quotient ring
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

In ring theory, a branch of
abstract algebra In mathematics, more specifically algebra, abstract algebra or modern algebra is the study of algebraic structures, which are set (mathematics), sets with specific operation (mathematics), operations acting on their elements. Algebraic structur ...
, a quotient ring, also known as factor ring, difference ring or residue class ring, is a construction quite similar to the
quotient group A quotient group or factor group is a mathematical group obtained by aggregating similar elements of a larger group using an equivalence relation that preserves some of the group structure (the rest of the structure is "factored out"). For ex ...
in
group theory In abstract algebra, group theory studies the algebraic structures known as group (mathematics), groups. The concept of a group is central to abstract algebra: other well-known algebraic structures, such as ring (mathematics), rings, field ( ...
and to the quotient space in
linear algebra Linear algebra is the branch of mathematics concerning linear equations such as :a_1x_1+\cdots +a_nx_n=b, linear maps such as :(x_1, \ldots, x_n) \mapsto a_1x_1+\cdots +a_nx_n, and their representations in vector spaces and through matrix (mathemat ...
. It is a specific example of a quotient, as viewed from the general setting of universal algebra. Starting with a ring R and a two-sided ideal I in , a new ring, the quotient ring , is constructed, whose elements are the cosets of I in R subject to special + and \cdot operations. (Quotient ring notation almost always uses a fraction slash ""; stacking the ring over the ideal using a horizontal line as a separator is uncommon and generally avoided.) Quotient rings are distinct from the so-called "quotient field", or
field of fractions In abstract algebra, the field of fractions of an integral domain is the smallest field in which it can be embedded. The construction of the field of fractions is modeled on the relationship between the integral domain of integers and the fie ...
, of an
integral domain In mathematics, an integral domain is a nonzero commutative ring in which the product of any two nonzero elements is nonzero. Integral domains are generalizations of the ring of integers and provide a natural setting for studying divisibilit ...
as well as from the more general "rings of quotients" obtained by localization.


Formal quotient ring construction

Given a ring R and a two-sided ideal I in , we may define an equivalence relation \sim on R as follows: : a \sim b
if and only if In logic and related fields such as mathematics and philosophy, "if and only if" (often shortened as "iff") is paraphrased by the biconditional, a logical connective between statements. The biconditional is true in two cases, where either bo ...
a - b is in . Using the ideal properties, it is not difficult to check that \sim is a
congruence relation In abstract algebra, a congruence relation (or simply congruence) is an equivalence relation on an algebraic structure (such as a group (mathematics), group, ring (mathematics), ring, or vector space) that is compatible with the structure in the ...
. In case , we say that a and b are ''congruent
modulo In computing and mathematics, the modulo operation returns the remainder or signed remainder of a division, after one number is divided by another, the latter being called the '' modulus'' of the operation. Given two positive numbers and , mo ...
'' I (for example, 1 and 3 are congruent modulo 2 as their difference is an element of the ideal , the even integers). The equivalence class of the element a in R is given by: \left a \right= \overline = a + I := \left\lbrace a + r : r \in I \right\rbraceThis equivalence class is also sometimes written as a \bmod I and called the "residue class of a modulo I". The set of all such equivalence classes is denoted by ; it becomes a ring, the factor ring or quotient ring of R modulo , if one defines * ; * . (Here one has to check that these definitions are well-defined. Compare
coset In mathematics, specifically group theory, a subgroup of a group may be used to decompose the underlying set of into disjoint, equal-size subsets called cosets. There are ''left cosets'' and ''right cosets''. Cosets (both left and right) ...
and
quotient group A quotient group or factor group is a mathematical group obtained by aggregating similar elements of a larger group using an equivalence relation that preserves some of the group structure (the rest of the structure is "factored out"). For ex ...
.) The zero-element of R\ /\ I is , and the multiplicative identity is . The map p from R to R\ /\ I defined by p(a) = a + I is a surjective ring homomorphism, sometimes called the ''natural quotient map'', ''natural projection map'', or the '' canonical homomorphism''.


Examples

* The quotient ring R\ /\ \lbrace 0 \rbrace is
naturally isomorphic In category theory, a branch of mathematics, a natural transformation provides a way of transforming one functor into another while respecting the internal structure (i.e., the composition of morphisms) of the categories involved. Hence, a natur ...
to , and R / R is the zero ring , since, by our definition, for any , we have that , which equals R itself. This fits with the rule of thumb that the larger the ideal , the smaller the quotient ring . If I is a proper ideal of , i.e., , then R / I is not the zero ring. * Consider the ring of
integer An integer is the number zero (0), a positive natural number (1, 2, 3, ...), or the negation of a positive natural number (−1, −2, −3, ...). The negations or additive inverses of the positive natural numbers are referred to as negative in ...
s \mathbb and the ideal of even numbers, denoted by . Then the quotient ring \mathbb / 2 \mathbb has only two elements, the coset 0 + 2 \mathbb consisting of the even numbers and the coset 1 + 2 \mathbb consisting of the odd numbers; applying the definition, , where 2 \mathbb is the ideal of even numbers. It is naturally isomorphic to the
finite field In mathematics, a finite field or Galois field (so-named in honor of Évariste Galois) is a field (mathematics), field that contains a finite number of Element (mathematics), elements. As with any field, a finite field is a Set (mathematics), s ...
with two elements, . Intuitively: if you think of all the even numbers as , then every integer is either 0 (if it is even) or 1 (if it is odd and therefore differs from an even number by ).
Modular arithmetic In mathematics, modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic operations for integers, other than the usual ones from elementary arithmetic, where numbers "wrap around" when reaching a certain value, called the modulus. The modern approach to mo ...
is essentially arithmetic in the quotient ring \mathbb / n \mathbb (which has n elements). * Now consider the ring of polynomials in the variable X with real
coefficient In mathematics, a coefficient is a Factor (arithmetic), multiplicative factor involved in some Summand, term of a polynomial, a series (mathematics), series, or any other type of expression (mathematics), expression. It may be a Dimensionless qu ...
s, , and the ideal I = \left( X^2 + 1 \right) consisting of all multiples of the
polynomial In mathematics, a polynomial is a Expression (mathematics), mathematical expression consisting of indeterminate (variable), indeterminates (also called variable (mathematics), variables) and coefficients, that involves only the operations of addit ...
. The quotient ring \mathbb /\ ( X^2 + 1 ) is naturally isomorphic to the field of
complex number In mathematics, a complex number is an element of a number system that extends the real numbers with a specific element denoted , called the imaginary unit and satisfying the equation i^= -1; every complex number can be expressed in the for ...
s , with the class /math> playing the role of the
imaginary unit The imaginary unit or unit imaginary number () is a mathematical constant that is a solution to the quadratic equation Although there is no real number with this property, can be used to extend the real numbers to what are called complex num ...
. The reason is that we "forced" , i.e. , which is the defining property of . Since any integer exponent of i must be either \pm i or , that means all possible polynomials essentially simplify to the form . (To clarify, the quotient ring is actually naturally isomorphic to the field of all linear polynomials , where the operations are performed modulo . In return, we have , and this is matching X to the imaginary unit in the isomorphic field of complex numbers.) * Generalizing the previous example, quotient rings are often used to construct
field extension In mathematics, particularly in algebra, a field extension is a pair of fields K \subseteq L, such that the operations of ''K'' are those of ''L'' restricted to ''K''. In this case, ''L'' is an extension field of ''K'' and ''K'' is a subfield of ...
s. Suppose K is some field and f is an irreducible polynomial in . Then L = K /\ (f) is a field whose minimal polynomial over K is , which contains K as well as an element . * One important instance of the previous example is the construction of the finite fields. Consider for instance the field F_3 = \mathbb / 3\mathbb with three elements. The polynomial f(X) = Xi^2 +1 is irreducible over F_3 (since it has no root), and we can construct the quotient ring . This is a field with 3^2 = 9 elements, denoted by . The other finite fields can be constructed in a similar fashion. * The coordinate rings of algebraic varieties are important examples of quotient rings in
algebraic geometry Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics which uses abstract algebraic techniques, mainly from commutative algebra, to solve geometry, geometrical problems. Classically, it studies zero of a function, zeros of multivariate polynomials; th ...
. As a simple case, consider the real variety V = \left\lbrace (x,y) , x^2 = y^3 \right\rbrace as a subset of the real plane . The ring of real-valued polynomial functions defined on V can be identified with the quotient ring , and this is the coordinate ring of . The variety V is now investigated by studying its coordinate ring. * Suppose M is a \mathbb^-
manifold In mathematics, a manifold is a topological space that locally resembles Euclidean space near each point. More precisely, an n-dimensional manifold, or ''n-manifold'' for short, is a topological space with the property that each point has a N ...
, and p is a point of . Consider the ring R = \mathbb^(M) of all \mathbb^-functions defined on M and let I be the ideal in R consisting of those functions f which are identically zero in some
neighborhood A neighbourhood (Commonwealth English) or neighborhood (American English) is a geographically localized community within a larger town, city, suburb or rural area, sometimes consisting of a single street and the buildings lining it. Neigh ...
U of p (where U may depend on ). Then the quotient ring R\ /\ I is the ring of germs of \mathbb^-functions on M at . * Consider the ring F of finite elements of a hyperreal field . It consists of all hyperreal numbers differing from a standard real by an infinitesimal amount, or equivalently: of all hyperreal numbers x for which a standard integer n with -n < x < n exists. The set I of all infinitesimal numbers in , together with , is an ideal in , and the quotient ring F\ /\ I is isomorphic to the real numbers . The isomorphism is induced by associating to every element x of F the standard part of , i.e. the unique real number that differs from x by an infinitesimal. In fact, one obtains the same result, namely , if one starts with the ring F of finite hyperrationals (i.e. ratio of a pair of hyperintegers), see construction of the real numbers.


Variations of complex planes

The quotients , , and \mathbb / (X - 1) are all isomorphic to \mathbb and gain little interest at first. But note that \mathbb / (X^2) is called the dual number plane in geometric algebra. It consists only of linear binomials as "remainders" after reducing an element of \mathbb /math> by . This variation of a complex plane arises as a subalgebra whenever the algebra contains a
real line A number line is a graphical representation of a straight line that serves as spatial representation of numbers, usually graduated like a ruler with a particular origin (geometry), origin point representing the number zero and evenly spaced mark ...
and a nilpotent. Furthermore, the ring quotient \mathbb / (X^2 - 1) does split into \mathbb / (X + 1) and , so this ring is often viewed as the
direct sum The direct sum is an operation between structures in abstract algebra, a branch of mathematics. It is defined differently but analogously for different kinds of structures. As an example, the direct sum of two abelian groups A and B is anothe ...
. Nevertheless, a variation on complex numbers z = x + yj is suggested by j as a root of , compared to i as root of . This plane of
split-complex number In algebra, a split-complex number (or hyperbolic number, also perplex number, double number) is based on a hyperbolic unit satisfying j^2=1, where j \neq \pm 1. A split-complex number has two real number components and , and is written z=x+y ...
s normalizes the direct sum \mathbb \oplus \mathbb by providing a basis \left\lbrace 1, j \right\rbrace for 2-space where the identity of the algebra is at unit distance from the zero. With this basis a unit hyperbola may be compared to the
unit circle In mathematics, a unit circle is a circle of unit radius—that is, a radius of 1. Frequently, especially in trigonometry, the unit circle is the circle of radius 1 centered at the origin (0, 0) in the Cartesian coordinate system in the Eucli ...
of the ordinary complex plane.


Quaternions and variations

Suppose X and Y are two non-commuting indeterminates and form the free algebra . Then Hamilton's
quaternion In mathematics, the quaternion number system extends the complex numbers. Quaternions were first described by the Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton in 1843 and applied to mechanics in three-dimensional space. The algebra of quater ...
s of 1843 can be cast as: \mathbb \langle X, Y \rangle / ( X^2 + 1,\, Y^2 + 1,\, XY + YX ) If Y^2 - 1 is substituted for , then one obtains the ring of split-quaternions. The anti-commutative property YX = -XY implies that XY has as its square: (XY) (XY) = X (YX) Y = -X (XY) Y = -(XX) (YY) = -(-1)(+1) = +1 Substituting minus for plus in ''both'' the quadratic binomials also results in split-quaternions. The three types of biquaternions can also be written as quotients by use of the free algebra with three indeterminates \mathbb \langle X, Y, Z \rangle and constructing appropriate ideals.


Properties

Clearly, if R is a
commutative ring In mathematics, a commutative ring is a Ring (mathematics), ring in which the multiplication operation is commutative. The study of commutative rings is called commutative algebra. Complementarily, noncommutative algebra is the study of ring prope ...
, then so is ; the converse, however, is not true in general. The natural quotient map p has I as its kernel; since the kernel of every ring homomorphism is a two-sided ideal, we can state that two-sided ideals are precisely the kernels of ring homomorphisms. The intimate relationship between ring homomorphisms, kernels and quotient rings can be summarized as follows: the ring homomorphisms defined on R\ /\ I are essentially the same as the ring homomorphisms defined on R that vanish (i.e. are zero) on . More precisely, given a two-sided ideal I in R and a ring homomorphism f : R \to S whose kernel contains , there exists precisely one ring homomorphism g : R\ /\ I \to S with gp = f (where p is the natural quotient map). The map g here is given by the well-defined rule g( = f(a) for all a in . Indeed, this
universal property In mathematics, more specifically in category theory, a universal property is a property that characterizes up to an isomorphism the result of some constructions. Thus, universal properties can be used for defining some objects independently fro ...
can be used to ''define'' quotient rings and their natural quotient maps. As a consequence of the above, one obtains the fundamental statement: every ring homomorphism f : R \to S induces a ring isomorphism between the quotient ring R\ /\ \ker (f) and the image . (See also: '' Fundamental theorem on homomorphisms''.) The ideals of R and R\ /\ I are closely related: the natural quotient map provides a
bijection In mathematics, a bijection, bijective function, or one-to-one correspondence is a function between two sets such that each element of the second set (the codomain) is the image of exactly one element of the first set (the domain). Equival ...
between the two-sided ideals of R that contain I and the two-sided ideals of R\ /\ I (the same is true for left and for right ideals). This relationship between two-sided ideal extends to a relationship between the corresponding quotient rings: if M is a two-sided ideal in R that contains , and we write M\ /\ I for the corresponding ideal in R\ /\ I (i.e. ), the quotient rings R\ /\ M and (R / I)\ /\ (M / I) are naturally isomorphic via the (well-defined) mapping . The following facts prove useful in
commutative algebra Commutative algebra, first known as ideal theory, is the branch of algebra that studies commutative rings, their ideal (ring theory), ideals, and module (mathematics), modules over such rings. Both algebraic geometry and algebraic number theo ...
and
algebraic geometry Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics which uses abstract algebraic techniques, mainly from commutative algebra, to solve geometry, geometrical problems. Classically, it studies zero of a function, zeros of multivariate polynomials; th ...
: for R \neq \lbrace 0 \rbrace commutative, R\ /\ I is a field if and only if I is a
maximal ideal In mathematics, more specifically in ring theory, a maximal ideal is an ideal that is maximal (with respect to set inclusion) amongst all ''proper'' ideals. In other words, ''I'' is a maximal ideal of a ring ''R'' if there are no other ideals ...
, while R / I is an
integral domain In mathematics, an integral domain is a nonzero commutative ring in which the product of any two nonzero elements is nonzero. Integral domains are generalizations of the ring of integers and provide a natural setting for studying divisibilit ...
if and only if I is a prime ideal. A number of similar statements relate properties of the ideal I to properties of the quotient ring . The
Chinese remainder theorem In mathematics, the Chinese remainder theorem states that if one knows the remainders of the Euclidean division of an integer ''n'' by several integers, then one can determine uniquely the remainder of the division of ''n'' by the product of thes ...
states that, if the ideal I is the intersection (or equivalently, the product) of pairwise
coprime In number theory, two integers and are coprime, relatively prime or mutually prime if the only positive integer that is a divisor of both of them is 1. Consequently, any prime number that divides does not divide , and vice versa. This is equiv ...
ideals , then the quotient ring R\ /\ I is isomorphic to the product of the quotient rings .


For algebras over a ring

An associative algebra A over a
commutative ring In mathematics, a commutative ring is a Ring (mathematics), ring in which the multiplication operation is commutative. The study of commutative rings is called commutative algebra. Complementarily, noncommutative algebra is the study of ring prope ...
R is a ring itself. If I is an ideal in A (closed under R-multiplication), then A / I inherits the structure of an algebra over R and is the quotient algebra.


See also

* Associated graded ring * Residue field * Goldie's theorem * Quotient module


Notes


Further references

* F. Kasch (1978) ''Moduln und Ringe'', translated by DAR Wallace (1982) ''Modules and Rings'', Academic Press, page 33. * Neal H. McCoy (1948) ''Rings and Ideals'', §13 Residue class rings, page 61, Carus Mathematical Monographs #8,
Mathematical Association of America The Mathematical Association of America (MAA) is a professional society that focuses on mathematics accessible at the undergraduate level. Members include university A university () is an educational institution, institution of tertiary edu ...
. * * B.L. van der Waerden (1970) ''Algebra'', translated by Fred Blum and John R Schulenberger, Frederick Ungar Publishing, New York. See Chapter 3.5, "Ideals. Residue Class Rings", pp. 47–51.


External links

* {{springer, title=Quotient ring, id=p/q076920
Ideals and factor rings
from John Beachy's ''Abstract Algebra Online'' Ring Ring theory