Persepolis

Persepolis (; ; ) was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire (). It is situated in the plains of Marvdasht, encircled by the southern Zagros mountains, Fars province of Iran. It is one of the key Iranian cultural heritage sites and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The earliest remains of Persepolis date back to 515 BC. The city, acting as a major center for the empire, housed a palace complex and citadel designed to serve as the focal point for governance and ceremonial activities. It exemplifies the Achaemenid style of architecture. The complex was taken by the army of Alexander the Great in 330 BC, and soon after, its wooden parts were completely destroyed by fire, likely deliberately.

The function of Persepolis remains unclear. It was not one of the largest cities in ancient Iran, let alone the rest of the empire, but appears to have been a grand ceremonial complex that was only occupied seasonally; the complex was raised high on a walled platform, with five "palaces" or halls of varying size, and grand entrances. It is still not entirely clear where the king's private quarters actually were. Until recently, most archaeologists held that it was primarily used for celebrating Nowruz, the Persian New Year, held at the spring equinox, which is still an important annual festivity in Iran. The Iranian nobility and the tributary parts of the empire came to present gifts to the king, as represented in the stairway reliefs. It is also unclear what permanent structures there were outside the palace complex; it may be better to think of Persepolis as only one complex rather than a "city" in the usual sense.Mousavi, Ali, ''Persepolis: Discovery and Afterlife of a World Wonder'', p. 53, 2012, Walter de Gruyter,
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The exploration of Persepolis from the early 17th century led to the modern rediscovery of cuneiform writing and, from detailed studies of the trilingual Achaemenid royal inscriptions found on the ruins, the initial decipherment of cuneiform in the early 19th century.

Etymology

''Persepolis'' is derived from the Greek , a compound of () and (, together meaning "the Persian city" or "the city of the Persians"). To the ancient Persians, the city was known as (), which is also the word for the region of Persia.

An inscription left in 311 AD by Sasanian Prince Shapur Sakanshah, the son of Hormizd II, refers to the site as , meaning "Hundred Pillars". Because medieval Persians attributed the site to Jamshid, a king from Iranian mythology, it has been referred to as (, ; ), literally meaning "Throne of Jamshid". Another name given to the site in the medieval period was (, "Forty Minarets"), transcribed as in De Silva Figueroa and as Chilminar in early English sources.

History

Construction

Archaeological evidence shows that the earliest remains of Persepolis date back to 515 BC. André Godard, the French archaeologist who excavated Persepolis in the early 1930s, believed that it was Cyrus the Great who chose the site of Persepolis, but that it was Darius I who built the terrace and the palaces. Inscriptions on these buildings support the belief that they were constructed by Darius.

With Darius I, the sceptre passed to a new branch of the royal house. The country's true capitals were Susa, Babylon and Ecbatana. This may be why the Greeks were not acquainted with the city until Alexander the Great took and plundered it.

Darius I's construction of Persepolis was carried out parallel to that of the Palace of Susa. According to Gene R. Garthwaite, the Susa Palace served as Darius' model for Persepolis. Darius I ordered the construction of the Apadana and the Council Hall ( or the "Triple Gate"), as well as the main imperial Treasury and its surroundings. These were completed during the reign of his son, Xerxes I. Further construction of the buildings on the terrace continued until the downfall of the Achaemenid Empire. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the Greek historian Ctesias mentioned that Darius I's grave was in a cliff face that could be reached with an apparatus of ropes.

Around 519 BC, construction of a broad stairway was begun. Grey limestone was the main building material used at Persepolis. The uneven plan of the terrace, including the foundation, acted like a castle, whose angled walls enabled its defenders to target any section of the external front.

File:General view of the ruins of Persepolis.jpg, General view of the Persepolis
File:Plan of Persepolis.png, Aerial architectural plan of Persepolis

Destruction

After invading Achaemenid Persia in 330 BC, Alexander the Great sent the main force of his army to Persepolis by the Royal Road. Diodorus Siculus writes that on his way to the city, Alexander and his army were met by 800 Greek artisans who had been captured by the Persians. Most were elderly and suffered some form of mutilation, such as a missing hand or foot. They explained to Alexander the Persians wanted to take advantage of their skills in the city but handicapped them so they could not easily escape. Alexander and his staff were disturbed by the story and provided the artisans with clothing and provisions before continuing on to Persepolis. Diodorus does not cite this as a reason for the destruction of Persepolis, but it is possible Alexander started to see the city in a negative light after this encounter.

Upon reaching the city, Alexander stormed the Persian Gates, a pass through Zagros Mountains. There, Ariobarzanes of Persis successfully ambushed Alexander the Great's army, inflicting heavy casualties. After being held off for 30 days, Alexander the Great outflanked and destroyed the defenders. Ariobarzanes himself was killed either during the battle or during the retreat to Persepolis. Some sources indicate that the Persians were betrayed by a captured tribal chief who showed the Macedonians an alternate path that allowed them to outflank Ariobarzanes in a reversal of Thermopylae. After several months, Alexander allowed his troops to loot Persepolis.

Around that time, a fire burned "the palaces" or "the palace".

It is believed that the fire which destroyed Persepolis started from Hadish Palace, which was the living quarters of Xerxes I, and spread to the rest of the city. It is not clear if the fire was an accident or a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the second Persian invasion of Greece. Many historians argue that, while Alexander's army celebrated with a symposium, they decided to take revenge against the Persians. p. 127 If that is so, then the destruction of Persepolis could be both an accident and a case of revenge. The fire may also have had the political purpose of destroying an iconic symbol of the Persian monarchy that might have become a focus for Persian resistance.

Several, much later, Greek and Roman accounts (including Arrian, Diodorus Siculus and Quintus Curtius Rufus) describe that the burning was the idea of Thaïs, mistress of Alexander's general Ptolemy I Soter, and possibly of Alexander himself. She is said to have suggested it during a very drunken celebration, according to some accounts to revenge the destruction of Greek sanctuaries (she was from Athens), and either she or Alexander himself set the fire going.

The '' Book of Arda Wiraz'', a Zoroastrian work composed in the 3rd or 4th century, describes Persepolis' archives as containing "all the Avesta and Zend, written upon prepared cow-skins, and with gold ink", which were destroyed. Indeed, in his ''Chronology of the Ancient Nations'', the native Iranian writer Biruni indicates unavailability of certain native Iranian historiographical sources in the post-Achaemenid era, especially during the Parthian Empire. He adds: " lexanderburned the whole of Persepolis as revenge to the Persians, because it seems the Persian King Xerxes had burnt the Greek City of Athens around 150 years ago. People say that, even at the present time, the traces of fire are visible in some places."

On the upside, the fire that destroyed those texts may have preserved the Persepolis Administrative Archives by preventing them from being lost over time to natural and man-made events.Wiesehöfer 10–11. According to archaeological evidence, the partial burning of Persepolis did not damage what are now referred to as the ''Persepolis Fortification Archive'' tablets, but rather may have caused the eventual collapse of the upper part of the northern fortification wall, preserving the tablets until their recovery by the Oriental Institute's archaeologists.Henkelman 2008:Ch 2.

After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire

In 316 BC, Persepolis was still the capital of Persia as a province of the great Macedonian Empire (see Diodorus Siculus xix, 21 seq., 46; probably after Hieronymus of Cardia, who was living about 326). The city must have gradually declined in the course of time. The lower city at the foot of the imperial city might have survived for a longer time; but the ruins of the Achaemenids remained as a witness to its ancient glory.

The nearby Estakhr gained prominence as a separate city very shortly after the decline of Persepolis. It appears that much of Persepolis' rubble was used for the building of Istakhr. At the time of the Muslim invasion of Persia, Estakhr offered a desperate resistance. It was still a place of considerable importance in the first century of Islam, although its greatness was speedily eclipsed by the new metropolis of Shiraz. In the 10th century, Estakhr dwindled to insignificance. During the following centuries, Estakhr gradually declined, until it ceased to exist as a city.

Geography

Persepolis is near the small river Pulvar, which flows into the Kur River. The site includes a terrace, partly artificially constructed and partly cut out of a mountain, with its east side leaning on Rahmat Mountain.

Archaeological research

Odoric of Pordenone may have passed through Persepolis on his way to China in 1320, although he mentioned only a great, ruined city called "Comerum". In 1474, Giosafat Barbaro visited the ruins of Persepolis, which he incorrectly thought were of Jewish origin. '' Hakluyt's Voyages'' included a general account of the ruins of Persepolis attributed to an English merchant who visited Iran in 1568. António de Gouveia from Portugal wrote about cuneiform inscriptions following his visit in 1602. His report on the ruins of Persepolis was published as part of his in 1611.

In 1618, García de Silva Figueroa, King Philip III of Spain's ambassador to the court of Abbas I, the Safavid monarch, was the first Western traveler to link the site known in Iran as "Chehel Minar" as the site known from Classical authors as Persepolis..

Pietro Della Valle visited Persepolis in 1621, and noticed that only 25 of the 72 original columns were still standing, due to either vandalism or natural processes. The Dutch traveler Cornelis de Bruijn visited Persepolis in 1704.

File:Cornelis de bruijn persepolis.JPG, Sketch of Persepolis from 1704 by Cornelis de Bruijn
File:Drawing of perspolis 1713 by Gérard Jean-Baptiste (1671-1716).JPG, Drawing of Persepolis in 1713 by Gérard Jean-Baptiste
File:Persepolis T Chipiez.jpg, Drawing of the Tachara by Charles Chipiez
File:Persepolis Reconstruction Apadana Chipiez.jpg, The Apadana by Charles Chipiez
File:Persepolis Reconstruction Apadana Toit Chipiez.JPEG, Apadana detail by Charles Chipiez
File:Persepolis by Chardin & al.jpg, Persepolis by Jean Chardin, 1711
File:Prus dar persepolis.png, Prussia board at Persepolis, 1862–1863
File:Ernst Herzfeld.jpg, The first scientific explorations in Persepolis were conducted by Ernst Herzfeld in 1931
File:Persepolis Colonne flandin.jpg, The design and details of the columns of Persepolis
File:Persepolis Rec Iso Toit Tach Chipiez.jpg, Roof design of palaces at Persepolis
File:Chipiez 100 colonnes.jpg, The design of the Throne Hall, Persepolis

The fruitful region was covered with villages until its frightful devastation in the 18th century; and even now it is, comparatively speaking, well cultivated. The Castle of Estakhr played a conspicuous part as a strong fortress, several times, during the Muslim period. It was the middlemost and the highest of the three steep crags which rise from the valley of the Kur, at some distance to the west or northwest of the necropolis of Naqsh-e Rustam.

The French voyagers Eugène Flandin and Pascal Coste are among the first to provide not only a literary review of the structure of Persepolis, but also to create some of the best and earliest visual depictions of its structure. In their publications in Paris, in 1881 and 1882, titled , the authors provided some 350 ground breaking illustrations of Persepolis. French influence and interest in Persia's archaeological findings continued after the accession of Reza Shah, when André Godard became the first director of the archeological service of Iran.

In the 1800s, a variety of amateur digging occurred at the site, in some cases on a large scale.Ali Mousavi, Persepolis in Retrospect: Histories of Discovery and Archaeological Exploration at the ruins of ancient Passch, Ars Orientalis, vol. 32, pp. 209–251, 2002

The first scientific excavations at Persepolis were carried out by Ernst Herzfeld and Erich Schmidt representing the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. They conducted excavations for eight seasons, beginning in 1930, and included other nearby sites.

Herzfeld believed that the reasons behind the construction of Persepolis were the need for a majestic atmosphere, a symbol for the empire, and to celebrate special events, especially the ''Nowruz''. For historical reasons, Persepolis was built where the Achaemenid dynasty was founded, although it was not the center of the empire at that time.

Excavations of plaque fragments hint at a scene with a contest between Herakles and Apollo, dubbed ''A Greek painting at Persepolis''.

Architecture

Persepolitan architecture is noted for its use of the Persian column, which was probably based on earlier wooden columns.

The buildings at Persepolis include three general groupings: military quarters, the treasury, and the reception halls and occasional houses for the King. Noted structures include the Great Stairway, the Gate of All Nations, the Apadana, the Hall of a Hundred Columns, the Tripylon Hall and the Tachara, the Hadish Palace, the Palace of Artaxerxes III, the Imperial Treasury, the Royal Stables, and the Chariot House.

Remains

Ruins of a number of colossal buildings exist on the terrace. All are constructed of dark-grey marble. Fifteen of their pillars stand intact. Three more pillars have been re-erected since 1970. Several of the buildings were never finished.

Behind the compound at Persepolis, there are three sepulchers hewn out of the rock in the hillside.

File:Persepolis stairs of the Apadana relief.jpg, A bas-relief from the Apadana Palace depicting Delegations including Lydians and Armenians bringing their famous wine to the king.
File:Achaemenid plaque from Persepolis.JPG, Achaemenid plaque from Persepolis, kept at the National Museum of Iran.
File:Mad-5223.jpg, Relief of a Median man at Persepolis.
File:National Meusem Darafsh 6 (54).JPG, Objects from Persepolis kept at the National Museum of Iran
File:National Meusem Darafsh 20.JPG, The head of a Lamassu from Persepolis, kept at the National Museum of Iran
File:Door-Post Socket (4690606141).jpg, Door-Post Socket
File:Part of the monumental double staircase leading up to the terrace, Persepolis, Iran (47779523221).jpg, The Great Double Staircase at Persepolis
File:PersepolisNegareh.jpg, A bas-relief at Persepolis, representing a symbol in Zoroastrianism for Nowruz.
File:ردیف سربازان-پلکان کاخ آپادانا-تخت جمشید.jpg, The discipline of the reliefs.
File:Tablette xerxes persepolis.jpg, Tablets of Xerxes, kept at the National Museum of Iran
File:Persepolis Apadana Stairways in National Museum of Iran.jpg, One of the staircases of Persepolis, kept at the National Museum of Iran
File:Achamanid-Woman-Statue-Persia-Persepolis.jpg, One of the four existing statues of Penelope was discovered at Persepolis, and is kept at the National Museum of Iran

The Gate of All Nations

The Gate of All Nations, referring to subjects of the empire, consisted of a grand hall that was a square of approximately in length, with four columns and its entrance on the Western Wall.

File:Gate of All Nations, Persepolis.jpg, The Gate of All Nations, Persepolis
File:Detail- The Gate of All Nations, Persepolis, Iran (4670203537).jpg, A Lamassu at the Gate of All Nations
File:Position of three languages inscriptions on Gate of all nations in persepolis.JPG, The position of three languages inscriptions on The Gate of All Nations, Persepolis
File:تخت جمشيد دروازه ملل Persepolice Fars Marvdasht Shiraz - panoramio.jpg, The two Lamassu at the Gate of All Nations.
File:A history of all nations from the earliest times; being a universal historical library (1905) (14759223936).jpg, The Gate of All Nations in 1905.

The Apadana Palace

Darius I built the greatest palace at Persepolis on the western side of platform. This palace was called the ''Apadana''. The King of Kings used it for official audiences.

Foundation tablets of gold and silver were found in two deposition boxes in the foundations of the Palace. They contained an inscription by Darius in Old Persian cuneiform, which describes the extent of his Empire in broad geographical terms, and is known as the DPh inscription:

The reliefs on the staircases allow one to observe the people from across the empire in their traditional dress, and even the king himself, "down to the smallest detail".

File:Apadana palace persepolis.JPG, alt=, Apadana palace, Persepolis
File:Medes and Persians at eastern stairs of the Apadana, Persepolis.JPG, Depiction of united Medes and Persians at Apadana, Persepolis
File:Persépolis, Irán, 2016-09-24, DD 53.jpg, Immortals figures at Apadana, Persepolis
File:Cedar in Persepolis by Hamid Parsaei Rad.jpg, Depiction of trees and Lotus flowers at the Apadana, Persepolis
File:Columns, Persepolis, Iran (14471667541).jpg, Apadana's columns, Persepolis
File:The Treasury Reliefs (Best Viewed in "Original" Size) (4734172156).jpg, The central wall of the northern stairs of Apadana palace, which shows Xerxes sitting on the throne and receiving an important official. Kept at the National Museum of Iran. Its counterpart remains at Persepolis.

Apadana Palace coin hoard

The Apadana hoard is a hoard of coins that were discovered under the stone boxes containing the foundation tablets of the Apadana Palace in Persepolis. The coins were discovered in excavations in 1933 by Erich Schmidt, in two deposits, each deposit under the two deposition boxes that were found. The deposition of this hoard is dated to . The coins consisted in eight gold lightweight Croeseids, a tetradrachm of Abdera, a stater of Aegina and three double- sigloi from Cyprus. The Croeseids were found in very fresh condition, confirming that they had been recently minted under Achaemenid rule. The deposit did not have any Darics and Sigloi, which also suggests strongly that these coins typical of Achaemenid coinage only started to be minted later, after the foundation of the Apadana Palace.

The Throne Hall

Next to the Apadana, second largest building of the Terrace and the final edifices, is the Throne Hall or the Imperial Army's ''Hall of Honor'' (also called the ''Hundred-Columns Palace''). This hall was started by Xerxes I and completed by his son Artaxerxes I by the end of the fifth century BC. Its eight stone doorways are decorated on the south and north with reliefs of throne scenes and on the east and west with scenes depicting the king in combat with monsters. Two colossal stone bulls flank the northern portico. The head of one of the bulls now resides in the Oriental Institute in Chicago and a column base from one of the columns in the British Museum.

At the beginning of the reign of Xerxes I, the Throne Hall was used mainly for receptions for military commanders and representatives of all the subject nations of the empire. Later, the Throne Hall served as an imperial museum.

The Tachara Palace

Tachara, was the exclusive palace of Darius the Great at Persepolis. Only a small portion of the palace was finished under his rule, it was completed after the death of Darius in 486 BC, by his son and successor, Xerxes, who called it a Taçara, which means "winter palace" in Old Persian. It was then used by Artaxerxes I. In the 4th century BC, following his invasion of Iran in 330 BC, Alexander the Great allowed his troops to loot Persepolis. This palace was one of the few structures that escaped destruction in the burning of the complex by Alexander's army, and because of that, Tachara is the most intact building of Persepolis today. It is also the oldest structure at Persepolis. Tachara stands back to back to the Apadana, and is oriented southward.

File:کاخ تچرا.jpg, Tachara is the most intact building of Persepolis today.
File:پلکانی در کاخ تچر.jpg, The staircase of Tachara palace at Persepolis
File:Tachara Persepolis.JPG, The trilingual inscription of Xerxes on the south porch of Tachara palace at Persepolis
File:Achaemenid King vs Lion.jpg, The relief of king's battle with devil at Tachara palace, Persepolis
File:Persepolis relief guests.jpg, Part of the reliefs on the southern stairway of Tachara palace depicting a line of servants bearing animals, food and drinks.
File:نمایی از تخت جمشید 2.jpg, Tachara Palace, Persepolis
File:Persepolis Iran-5.jpg, On the structure of Tachara palace

The Hadish Palace

The Hadish Palace of Xerxes is one of palaces at Persepolis. It's located on the east of the Palace of H (Artaxerxes I). The palace occupies the highest level of terrace and stands on the living rock. The inscriptions of the palace attest that the building was built by order of Xerxes. It covers an area of 2550 square meters (40*55 meters). A double staircase on the west leads to courtyard of the Tachara chateau and another staircase on the northeast connects to courtyard of the Council Hall.
File:History History Travel from Shiraz to Isfahan, Iran (40353041755).jpg, The Hadish palace, Persepolis
File:Lotus on the walls of Hadish palace,.png, Lotus on the walls of Hadish palace, Persepolis
File:Persepolis 24.11.2009 11-39-46.jpg, Hadish palace was built by the order of Xerxes
File:Persepolis, Iran (2471048564).jpg, Xerxes at the Hadish palace
File:Ruins of the Palace of Xerxes in Persepolis, Iran, historical illustration, circa 1886.png, Hadish Palace at Persepolis, 1886
File:1911 Britannica-Architecture-Hall of Xerxes.png, The hall of Hadish palace.

Other palaces and structures

The Council Hall, the Tryplion Hall, the Palaces of D, G, H, storerooms, stables and quarters, the unfinished gateway and a few miscellaneous structures at Persepolis are located near the south-east corner of the terrace, at the foot of the mountain.

File:Zoomorphic Capital (4679068036).jpg, Huma bird at Persepolis
File:Perspolis.jpg, A well-preserved column at Persepolis
File:SEHDAR PALACE IN PERSEPOLIS.tif, Reliefs from the Council Hall, Persepolis
File:خزانه.jpg, Part of the treasury, Persepolis
File:Persepolis, Iran 08.jpg, The unfinished gate of Persepolis, started by the order of Artaxerxes III, continued by his successors Arses and Darius III.
File:تخت جمشید 7.JPG, A column head.

Tombs

It is commonly accepted that Cyrus the Great was buried in the Tomb of Cyrus in Pasargadae, which is mentioned by Ctesias as his own city. If it is true that the body of Cambyses II was brought home "to the Persians," his burying place must be somewhere beside that of his father. Ctesias assumes that it was the custom for a king to prepare his own tomb during his lifetime. Hence, the kings buried at Naghsh-e Rostam are probably Darius I, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I and Darius II. Xerxes II, who reigned for a very short time, could scarcely have obtained so splendid a monument, and still less could the usurper Sogdianus. The two completed graves behind the compound at Persepolis would then belong to Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III. The unfinished tomb, a kilometer away from the city, is debated to who it belongs.

Ancient texts

There are a total of 11 existing inscriptions at Persepolis, related to Darius the Great, Xerxes, Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III. The relevant passages from ancient scholars on the subject are set out below:

Modern events

2,500-year celebration

In 1971, Persepolis was the main staging ground for the '' 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire'' under the reign of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the second and last Shah of the Pahlavi dynasty. It included delegations from foreign nations in an attempt to advance the Iranian culture and history.

The controversy of the Sivand Dam

Construction of the Sivand Dam, named after the nearby town of Sivand, began on 19 September 2006. Despite 10 years of planning, Iran's Cultural Heritage Organization was not aware of the broad areas of flooding during much of this time, and there is growing concern about the effects the dam will have on the surrounding areas of Persepolis. Activists expressed concern that the dam's placement between the ruins of Pasargadae and Persepolis will flood both. Engineers involved with the construction deny this claim, stating that it is impossible, because both sites sit well above the planned waterline. Of the two sites, Pasargadae is considered the more threatened.

Nowruz Celebrations

Every year during Nowruz, a large number of people come to Persepolis to celebrate the new year. In 2024, 10,000 people were at Persepolis when Nowruz started.

First concert

In a groundbreaking cultural event, Iranian vocalist Alireza Ghorbani performed the first-ever concert at Persepolis from 29 June to 1 July 2024, and received an overwhelmingly enthusiastic response from attendees.

Cultural events

Various events are held in Persepolis every year, including the Shahnameh reading festival and other cultural events.

Conservation issues

The site is also threatened by the presence of lichens that have grown on the surface of the monuments, some of which have eroded intricate carvings and motifs. Some of the lichens are estimated to be around 1,700 years old, and their spread has been attributed to industrialisation, acid rain and the extreme desert climate.

Museums (outside Iran) that display objects from Persepolis

One bas-relief from Persepolis is in the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, England. The largest collection of reliefs is at the British Museum, sourced from multiple British travellers who worked in Iran in the 19th century. The Persepolis bull at the Oriental Institute in Chicago is one of the university's most prized treasures, part of the division of finds from the excavations of the 1930s. New York City's Metropolitan Museum and Detroit Institute of Art houses objects from Persepolis, as does the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology of the University of Pennsylvania. The Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon and the Louvre of Paris hold objects from Persepolis as well. A bas-relief of a soldier that had been looted from the excavations in 1935–36 and later purchased by the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts was repatriated to Iran in 2018, after being offered for sale in London and New York.

File:Forgotten Empire Exhibition, (Room 5).1.JPG, ''Forgotten Empire Exhibition'', the British Museum
File:The British Museum, Room 5-Persepolis Bas-relief.jpg, ''Forgotten Empire Exhibition'', the British Museum
File:UC Oriental Institute Iranian artifacts ancient 10.JPG, Persepolitan rosette rock relief, kept at the Oriental Institute
File:Persian Objects at Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York - 2015.jpg, alt=Museum display case showing Achaemenid objects., Achaemenid objects at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, including a bas relief from Persepolis
File:Head of an archer of the royal guard, 2 of 2, from the Palace of Xerxes, Achaemenid Persia, 486-465 BC, limestone - Sackler Museum - Harvard University - DSC01732.jpg, Head of an archer of the royal guard from Hadish palace, Sackler Museum - Harvard University
File:Fragment of wall decoration from the Palace of Xerxes, guardsman in procession, 486-465 BC, Achaemenid, Iran, Persepolis, gray limestone - Cleveland Museum of Art - DSC08093.JPG, Fragment of wall decoration from Hadish palace, Cleveland Museum of Art

Foreign visitors graffiti at Persepolis

Some European travelers throughout history have left graffiti on the walls of Persepolis during their visits.

Gallery

File:Persepolis 2012.jpg, A general view of the Persepolis.
File:آرامگاه اردشیر سوم در نمای کلی.jpg, The tomb of Artaxerxes II at Persepolis
File:Persepolis-horn shaped stones.jpg, Horn-shaped stones at Persepolis.
File:Entrance Museum of Persepolis.jpg, The Queen's Quarters, built by the order of Xerxes. The palace was excavated and rebuilt by Ernst Herzfeld in 1931, and today it is used as a museum and the central office of Persepolis.
File:Pasargadae Swallow-Tail Staples.jpg, The use of dovetail joint instead of mortar in gluing stones together.
File:Persépolis, Irán, 2016-09-24, DD 01.jpg, The entrance of Persepolis.
File:030614-Perspolice-IMG 1273-2.jpg, Perspolice, Fars province, Iran

See also

*Achaemenid architecture
*Behistun Inscription
* Cities of the Ancient Near East
* Foreign Visitors Graffiti at Persepolis
* Istakhr
* List of World Heritage Sites in Iran
*Naqsh-e Rustam
* Palace of Darius in Susa, similar structure built at the same time
* Pasargadae
* Persepolis (comics)
* Persepolis F.C.
* Qadamgah (ancient site)
* Tachara

Notes

References

Further reading

*Curtis, J. and Tallis, N. (eds). (2005).
Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia
'' University of California Press. .
*
*
*Wilber, Donald Newton. (1989). ''Persepolis: The Archaeology of Parsa, Seat of the Persian Kings''. Darwin Press. Revised edition .

External links

Persepolis
– official website
Persepolis
at the ''Ancient History Encyclopedia'' with timeline, illustrations, and books
*Arthur John Booth
''The Discovery and Decipherment of the Trilingual Cuneiform Inscriptions''
(1902)

an
Introduction to the Persian Expedition
,
360 degrees panorama gallery of PersepolisGoogle Maps"Persepolis"
at Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran
Greek Art And Architecture In Iran
(Mentions Ionian work in Persepolis)
Persepolis: The Magnificent Ancient Capital of the Persian Achaemenid Empire
a
Amazing Iran Media

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