Mount Pulosari is a

stratovolcano A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a typically conical volcano built up by many alternating layers (strata) of hardened lava and tephra. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with ...

Pandeglang Regency Pandeglang Regency ( Sundanese: ) is a regency of Banten province, Indonesia. It is mainly located on the west and south coasts of the island of Java and is the most westerly regency on Java Island, but it also includes several offshore islands su ...

Banten Banten (, , Pegon alphabet, Pegon: بنتن) is the westernmost Provinces of Indonesia, province on the island of Java, Indonesia. Its capital city is Serang and its largest city is Tangerang. The province borders West Java and the Special Capi ...

, in

West Java West Java (, ) is an Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province on the western part of the island of Java, with its provincial capital in Bandung. West Java is bordered by the province of Banten and the country's capital region of Jakarta to t ...

Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...

. There are active

solfatara A fumarole (or fumerole) is a vent in the surface of the Earth or another rocky planet from which hot volcanic gases and vapors are emitted, without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of volcani ...

s on its deep

caldera A caldera ( ) is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcanic eruption. An eruption that ejects large volumes of magma over a short period of time can cause significant detriment to the str ...

wall.

Geology

Pulosari is included on the list of 116 Indonesian

Holocene The Holocene () is the current geologic time scale, geological epoch, beginning approximately 11,700 years ago. It follows the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene to ...

age volcanoes. It has been identified as a volcano in a

fumarolic A fumarole (or fumerole) is a vent in the surface of the Earth or another rocky planet from which hot volcanic gases and vapors are emitted, without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of volcani ...

state with no known eruptions.

Basalt Basalt (; ) is an aphanite, aphanitic (fine-grained) extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of low-viscosity lava rich in magnesium and iron (mafic lava) exposed at or very near the planetary surface, surface of a terrestrial ...

andesite Andesite () is a volcanic rock of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between silica-poor basalt and silica-rich rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in texture, and is composed predomina ...

, and

pyroxene The pyroxenes (commonly abbreviated Px) are a group of important rock-forming inosilicate minerals found in many igneous and metamorphic rocks. Pyroxenes have the general formula , where X represents ions of calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), iron ( ...

have all been identified in the

petrology Petrology () is the branch of geology that studies rocks, their mineralogy, composition, texture, structure and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous ...

of the mountain. An 1875 account describes the crater as consisting of "tan lava and traohite chunks", around 800 steps in diameter and shallow. It also states that the crater contains boiling mud and that the rim is permeated by sulfurous gas made more prominent should the ground be punctured.

History

During the

10th century The 10th century was the period from 901 (represented by the Roman numerals CMI) through 1000 (M) in accordance with the Julian calendar, and the last century of the 1st millennium. In China, the Song dynasty was established, with most of C ...

, a

Hindu temple A Hindu temple, also known as Mandir, Devasthanam, Pura, or Kovil, is a sacred place where Hindus worship and show their devotion to Hindu deities, deities through worship, sacrifice, and prayers. It is considered the house of the god to who ...

was built on the highland of the mountain, under the

Sunda Kingdom The Sunda Kingdom ( , ) was a Sundanese people, Sundanese Hindu kingdom located in the western portion of the island of Java from 669 to around 1579, covering the area of present-day Banten, Jakarta, West Java, Lampung, and the western part of ...

. Five statues that share a single base depict Shiva Mahadewa,

Durga Durga (, ) is a major Hindu goddess, worshipped as a principal aspect of the mother goddess Mahadevi. She is associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction, and wars. Durga's legend centres around combating evils and demonic ...

Batara Guru Batara Guru (also called Bhattara Guru, Debata Batara Guru and Batara Siwa) is the name of a supreme god in Indonesian Hinduism. His name is derived from Sanskrit ''Bhattaraka'' which means “noble lord".R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia du ...

Ganesha Ganesha or Ganesh (, , ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped Deva (Hinduism), deities in the Hindu deities, Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in the Ganapatya sect. His depictions ...

and

Brahma Brahma (, ) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the triple deity, trinity of Para Brahman, supreme divinity that includes Vishnu and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212– ...

; these are known as "Caringin" statues. 800

priests A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in particular, ...

are said to have lived on the mountain under the leadership of Prabu Pucuk Umun during the era of

Sunan Gunungjati Sunan Gunungjati (1448–1568) was one of the '' Wali Songo'' or nine saints of Islam revered in Indonesia for the propagation of Islam as the dominant religion in the region. He founded the Sultanate of Banten and the Sultanate of Cirebon on ...

and

Maulana Hasanuddin of Banten Maulana Hasanuddin (also spelled Hasanuddin) was the first Sultan of Banten Sultanate, Banten, ruling from c. 1552 to 1570. Hasanuddin was a Azmatkhani Sayyid, the son of Sunan Gunungjati and Nyai Ratu Kawunganten. He extended the domains of B ...

in the

16th century The 16th century began with the Julian calendar, Julian year 1501 (represented by the Roman numerals MDI) and ended with either the Julian or the Gregorian calendar, Gregorian year 1600 (MDC), depending on the reckoning used (the Gregorian calend ...

. Hasanuddin lived there for almost a decade, and many converted to

Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...

. Those who did not left for the southern mountainous areas. Local history states that Hasanuddin required the converted priests to remain on the mountain, believing that a lack of pious guardians would be detrimental to the welfare of life on Java. The stratovolcano has also been known by the name Poelasari and Pulasari. In '' The Book of Ancient Kings'', Mount Pulosari is referred to as Mount Batuwara.

Cultural structures

Cidaresi Bergores stone

At 06° 21' 39.5" S, 106° 00' 17.6" E stands the Cidaresi Bergores stone, a long by wide

monolith A monolith is a geological feature consisting of a single massive stone or rock, such as some mountains. Erosion usually exposes the geological formations, which are often made of very hard and solid igneous or metamorphic rock. Some monolit ...

with triangular shapes scored into the surface. Locally, the stone is called 'batu tumbung' or 'batu tum' because the triangles are representative of female genitals. The stone is composed of andesite and is located in the midst of rice paddies. It is considered a symbol of

fertility Fertility in colloquial terms refers the ability to have offspring. In demographic contexts, fertility refers to the actual production of offspring, rather than the physical capability to reproduce, which is termed fecundity. The fertility rate ...

Citaman pools

Sukasari Village stands at the base of Mount Pulosari and houses a complex of nine purification pools are located.

Cipanggitikan

The pool at Cipanggitikan has been covered by

concrete Concrete is a composite material composed of aggregate bound together with a fluid cement that cures to a solid over time. It is the second-most-used substance (after water), the most–widely used building material, and the most-manufactur ...

, leaving a rectangular shape measuring by . It has a depth of , and the water is used in the supply for Pandeglang and is owned in part by the Regional Drinking Water Company (PDAM) 'id''in Pandeglang.

Cikajayaan

Cikajayaan is west of Cipanggitikan and means "water of glory". Locals believe bathing in the pool will bring success. The pool is square, bordered by small rocks, and had an area comprising by , with a depth of . It is surrounded by ''

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis ''Hibiscus'' is a genus of flowering plants in the Malva, mallow family, Malvaceae. The genus is quite large, comprising List of Hibiscus species, several hundred species that are Native plant, native to warm temperate, Subtropics, subtropical ...

''.

Cikaapeusan

Approximately from Cikajayaan stands Cikaapeusan, known as the "water of bad luck". People bathe in the pool to get rid of their bad luck. It measures by with a depth of , and is covered by concrete like Cipanggitikan, save for a small opening on one side.

Cipangantenan

Cipangantenan is approximately west of Cikaapeusan. It is in the shape of an "L", measuring by with a depth of . This pool has a spring flowing directly into it that also flows into the larger Citaman Pool, and is surrounded by andesite rocks. The name means "wedding water" as it is believed that those who wish to find their " soul mate" must bathe in the water.

Cikapaliasan

Approximately west of Cikapangantenan, the waters of this pool are believed to protect from danger. The pool is shaped like a trapezoid and covers an area of square with a depth of . The water from this pool flows directly into Citaman Pool.

Cikaputrian

The most popular of the nine pool, Cikaputrian measures by with a depth of . It lies approximately to the northeast of Cikapaliasan.

Cikahuripan

Located to the left of the entrance to the Citaman site, the pool is bordered by andesite rocks and covers an area of square, with a depth of .

Cikembangan

southwest of Cikahuripan, Cikembangan – meaning "flower water" – is directly adjacent to Citaman Pool. It measures by and has a depth of . It is covered with green

moss Mosses are small, non-vascular plant, non-vascular flowerless plants in the taxonomic phylum, division Bryophyta (, ) ''sensu stricto''. Bryophyta (''sensu lato'', Wilhelm Philippe Schimper, Schimp. 1879) may also refer to the parent group bryo ...

Citaman

The largest of the pools, Citaman covers an area of square and a depth of up to . The water flows directly into the Cigetir River. It has a divider, allowing for division between genders in using the pool. It is above sea level, located at coordinates 6° 25' 24.5" S and 105° 55' 09.8" E.

Goong complex

The Goong complex is approximately from the Pandeglang Regency government center. The word "Goong" is Sudanese for "

gong A gongFrom Indonesian language, Indonesian and ; ; zh, c=鑼, p=luó; ; ; ; ; is a percussion instrument originating from Southeast Asia, and used widely in Southeast Asian and East Asian musical traditions. Gongs are made of metal and ...

" for the artifacts found among the

megalith A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a prehistoric structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. More than 35,000 megalithic structures have been identified across Europe, ranging geographically f ...

s. Several research studies were conducted to determine the cultural heritage of the site, concluding that the area is

prehistoric Prehistory, also called pre-literary history, is the period of human history between the first known use of stone tools by hominins million years ago and the beginning of recorded history with the invention of writing systems. The use o ...

and the stones are megaliths. It is located at coordinates 6° 20' 17.2" S and 105° 55' 18.9" E and is a terraced site, low on the west and high on the east. The resulting stepped contour is called Kaduguling Hill. One of the megalith areas includes 12 stones in a

cupola In architecture, a cupola () is a relatively small, usually dome-like structure on top of a building often crowning a larger roof or dome. Cupolas often serve as a roof lantern to admit light and air or as a lookout. The word derives, via Ital ...

, one

menhir A menhir (; from Brittonic languages: ''maen'' or ''men'', "stone" and ''hir'' or ''hîr'', "long"), standing stone, orthostat, or lith is a large upright stone, emplaced in the ground by humans, typically dating from the European middle Br ...

surrounded by 10

cylindrical A cylinder () has traditionally been a Solid geometry, three-dimensional solid, one of the most basic of curvilinear geometric shapes. In elementary geometry, it is considered a Prism (geometry), prism with a circle as its base. A cylinder may ...

stones with flat tops and one gong shaped artifact. The formation is often referred to as a "meeting bracelet". There are five such constructions within the complex.

Ranjang stone

The flat-topped andesite stone located at Batu Ranjang 'id''is known as a

dolmen A dolmen, () or portal tomb, is a type of single-chamber Megalith#Tombs, megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more upright megaliths supporting a large flat horizontal capstone or "table". Most date from the Late Neolithic period (4000 ...

. Though these are traditionally grave sites, this particular location is thought to have been used for the worship of ancestral spirits.

Sirit Gopar site

On the slopes of Mount Pulosari at 6° 19' 20.4" S and 105° 58' 52" E stand a number of menhirs in the shape of a

phallus A phallus (: phalli or phalluses) is a penis (especially when erect), an object that resembles a penis, or a mimetic image of an erect penis. In art history, a figure with an erect penis is described as ''ithyphallic''. Any object that symbo ...

. The name of the site translates to "male genitals". It is considered a site for fertility rites from prehistoric Indonesian peoples.

Tongtrong stone

The Tongtrong stone is located in the yard of a prayer room, and because it has been removed from its historical context, its exact historical cultural function is unknown. There is debate as to whether it was involved in burial or, because of its shape resembling female genitals, in fertility ceremonies.

Flora

Acalypha ''Acalypha'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Euphorbiaceae. It is the sole genus of the subtribe Acalyphinae. It is one of the largest euphorb genera, with approximately 450 to 462 species. The genus name ''Acalypha'' is from the ...

caturus'' 'war''was identified growing on the mountain at . ''

Actinodaphne ''Actinodaphne'' is an Asian genus of flowering plants in the laurel family (Lauraceae). It contains approximately 125 species 'war''has been found growing between and . A variant of '' Actephila'' (''Actephila javanica'') is thought to grow at approximately above sea level. It was observed flowering in December circa 1910. ''

Alyxia ''Alyxia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family, Apocynaceae. It contains at present 106 species, but '' Alyxia stellata'' and '' A. tisserantii'' are very variable, might be cryptic species complexes, and are need of further study. It c ...

'' plants have also been recorded in the area, with local wisdom mixing the wilted leaves of the gagan plant (''

centella asiatica ''Centella asiatica'', commonly known as Indian pennywort, Asiatic pennywort, spadeleaf, coinwort or gotu kola, is a herbaceous, perennial plant in the flowering plant family Apiaceae. It is native to tropical regions of Africa, Asia, Australia, ...

'') to create a vermicide for children. ''A. reinwardtii'' 'ban''is locally called pulasari and is sometimes sold as white cinnamon. Other mixtures containing ''A. reinwardtii'' are prepared as treatments for a varied number of medical conditions, from promoting

lactation Lactation describes the secretion of milk from the mammary glands and the period of time that a mother lactates to feed her young. The process naturally occurs with all sexually mature female mammals, although it may predate mammals. The process ...

, to use as a

diuretic A diuretic () is any substance that promotes diuresis, the increased production of urine. This includes forced diuresis. A diuretic tablet is sometimes colloquially called a water tablet. There are several categories of diuretics. All diuretics ...

, to a stage in treating

smallpox Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by Variola virus (often called Smallpox virus), which belongs to the genus '' Orthopoxvirus''. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (W ...

. '' Antidesma tetandrum'' 'war''was identified growing at , blooming in June. ''

Beilschmiedia ''Beilschmiedia'' is a genus of trees and shrubs in family Lauraceae. Most of its species grow in tropical climates, but a few of them are native to temperate regions, and they are widespread in tropical Asia, Africa, Madagascar, Australia, New Z ...

madang'' 'war''has been identified growing on the mountain at . ''

Bischofia javanica ''Bischofia javanica'', or bishop wood, is a plant species of the family Phyllanthaceae. It and the related '' Bischofia polycarpa'' are the only two members of genus '' Bischofia'' and tribe Bischofieae. These species are distributed throughout ...

'' was reported as having been collected on the mountainside circa 1910. ''

Breynia ''Breynia'' is a genus in the flowering plant family Phyllanthaceae, first described in 1776. It is native to Southeast Asia, China, Réunion, the Indian Subcontinent, Papuasia and Australia. The name ''Breynia'' is a conserved name, it is recog ...

microphylla'' 'war''has been identified as growing on the mountainside at approximately . '' Bridelia gauca'' 'war''has also been identified at approximately . ''B. minutiflora'' was identified at around . ''B. tomentosa'' 'id''is used in making

machete A machete (; ) is a broad blade used either as an agricultural implement similar to an axe, or in combat like a long-bladed knife. The blade is typically long and usually under thick. In the Spanish language, the word is possibly a dimin ...

handles and is found growing on the mountainside around , blooming in June. ''

Castanea The chestnuts are the deciduous trees and shrubs in the genus ''Castanea'', in the beech family Fagaceae. The name also refers to the edible nuts they produce. They are native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Description C ...

argentea'', ''C. javanica'', and ''C. tungurrut'' have all been found growing at over . ''

Celtis tetrandra ''Celtis tetrandra'', called the Nilgiri elm, is a species of flowering plant in the hackberry genus ''Celtis'', family Cannabaceae Cannabaceae is a small family of flowering plants, known as the hemp family. As now circumscribed, the famil ...

'' was located growing on the mountain at around . ''

Cheilosa montana ''Cheilosa'' is a monotypic plant genus of the family Euphorbiaceae first described as a genus in 1826. Only one species is recognized: ''Cheilosa montana'', native to Southeast Asia (Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Sumatra, Philippines, Java ...

'' was identified on the mountainside at and bloomed in November. '' Claoxylon indicum'' was identified growing at approximately , blooming in June. ''

Cryptocarya ''Cryptocarya'' is a genus of about 360 species of flowering plants in the laurel family, Lauraceae. Most species are trees, occasionally shrubs, distributed through the Neotropical, Afrotropical, Indomalayan, and Australasian realms. Most plant ...

densiflora'' 'war''has been identified as growing between and throughout Java, and was found on both

Mount Salak Mount Salak (, ) is an eroded volcano in West Java, Indonesia. It has several satellite cones on its southeast flank and the northern foot, along with two additional craters at the summit. Mount Salak has been evaluated for geothermal power d ...

and Mount Pulosari. ''C. tomentosa'' 'war''was only found to grow in West Java between and , and was identified on Mt. Gëde, Mt. Karang, and Mt. Pulosari. ''

Daphniphyllum ''Daphniphyllum'' is the sole genus in the flowering plant family Daphniphyllaceae and was described as a genus in 1826. The genus includes evergreen shrubs and trees mainly native to east and southeast Asia, but also found in the Indian Subconti ...

glaucescens'' 'war''was recorded as growing around circa 1910. This is taller than the recorded height of this volcano in 2024. Some '' Dissochaeta'' plants are known to grow from Mount Pulosari to

Mount Slamet Mount Slamet (, "Salvation Mountain" or "Mountain of Health") is an active stratovolcano that summits in the Pemalang Regency of Central Java, Indonesia. It has a cluster of around three dozen cinder cones on the lower southeast and northeast f ...

Banyumas Regency Banyumas (, formerly spelled "Banjoemas") Regency is an inland regency () in the southwestern part of Central Java province in Indonesia. Its capital is the town of Purwokerto, but that town no longer has a central administration and is split ov ...

. Specific species include ''D. inappendiculata'' and ''D. gracilis'' 'war'' ''

Glochidion ''Glochidion'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Phyllanthaceae, known as cheese trees or buttonwood in Australia, and leafflower trees in the scientific literature. It comprises about 170 species, distributed from Madagascar to the Pa ...

arboreseens'' 'zh''is the recorded name of a plant found growing on the mountain between and above sea level. ''G. rubrum'' 'war''was found growing nearly at the top of the volcano, at , and was seen to bloom in June. ''G. borneense'' 'war''also bloomed in June and was found growing at . ''G. kollmannianum'' was found at . '' Homalanthus populneus'', locally known as kareumbi 'id'' was located growing between and on the mountainside and recorded blooming in June. ''

Laportea ''Laportea'' is a genus of plants in the family Urticaceae. They are herbaceous, either annual or perennial. Like many plants of the Urticaceae, they have stinging hairs. There are stinging and non-stinging hairs on the same plant. The genus was ...

stimulans'' was identified on the mountainside between and and was seen blooming in June. ''

Litsea ''Litsea'' is a genus of evergreen or deciduous trees or shrubs belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The genus includes a large number of accepted species in tropical and subtropical areas of North America and Asia. Characteristics They a ...

accedentoides'' 'war''was found growing only on Mount Pulosari at around . ''L. acerina'' and ''L. polita'' were found only on the slopes of Mt Pulosari and Mt Karang. ''L. chrysocoma'' was found growing above on both Mt Karang and Mt Pulosari. ''L. ferruginea'' 'war''was found only growing on Mt Pulosari, Mt Salak, and near Takòka. ''L. resinosa'' 'war''was found on the mountainside between and . Macar trilob 161023-5301473 galg

Macaranga ''Macaranga'' is a large genus of Old World tropical trees of the family Euphorbiaceae and the only genus in the subtribe Macaranginae (tribe Acalypheae). Native to Africa, Australasia, Asia and various islands of the Indian and Pacific Oc ...

rhizinoides'', locally called mara tapen 'id'' grows on the mountainside between and above sea level.. '' M. tanarius'', locally called mara 'id'' was found blooming in July at . '' M. triloba'', locally called mahang damar 'id'' was found at approximately , and is listed as being common among the volcanic mountains of Indonesia. '' Mallotus cochinchinensis'' was discovered blooming in June at on the mountain. ''M. glaberrimus'' and ''M. blumeanus'' 'war''were both found at and bloomed in November. '' Ostodes paniculata'' 'war''was located at , blooming in June. '' Phoebe macrophylla'' has been found blooming in June at around . ''Villebrunea rubescens'' was identified as growing on the mountain at , with the variant ''V. rubescens sylvatica'' growing at .

Myths

Mount Pulosari has a small role in the Hindu creation myth associated with Mount Karang: in the story, Hanomat, king of the monkeys, carried two large bags of sand to create two islands in the

Sunda Strait The Sunda Strait () is the strait between the Indonesian islands of Java island, Java and Sumatra. It connects the Java Sea with the Indian Ocean. Etymology The strait takes its name from the Sunda Kingdom, which ruled the western portion of Ja ...

. When he saw that three islands already existed there, he tore the bags to pieces, creating two growing piles of sand that formed both Karang and Pulosari. The Banaspati Ghost 'id''is a legend of a ghost that roams the mountain and leads climbers astray. Another local legend tells of buffalo-sized

wild boar The wild boar (''Sus scrofa''), also known as the wild swine, common wild pig, Eurasian wild pig, or simply wild pig, is a Suidae, suid native to much of Eurasia and North Africa, and has been introduced to the Americas and Oceania. The speci ...

s who roam the slopes of the mountain at night and destroy crops.

References

Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{cite book , last=Voûte , first=Caesar , chapter=A New Perspective on Some Old Questions Pertaining to Borobudur , title=The Restoration of Borobudur , date=2005 , publisher=

UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...

, isbn=9789231039409 , oclc=65466575 Mountains of Banten Volcanoes of Banten Stratovolcanoes of Indonesia Cultural Properties of Indonesia in West Java