The Ottoman dynasty () consisted of the members of the imperial House of Osman (), also known as the Ottomans (). According to Ottoman tradition, the family originated from the

Kayı tribe Kayı can refer to: * Kayı (tribe) * Kayı, Çorum * Kayı, İdil * Kayı, Ilgaz * Kayı, Kemer * Kayı, Mecitözü * Kayı, Oğuzlar {{dis ...

branch of the

Oghuz Turks The Oghuz Turks ( Middle Turkic: , ) were a western Turkic people who spoke the Oghuz branch of the Turkic language family. In the 8th century, they formed a tribal confederation conventionally named the Oghuz Yabgu State in Central Asia ...

, under the leadership of

Osman I Osman I or Osman Ghazi (; or ''Osman Gazi''; died 1323/4) was the eponymous founder of the Ottoman Empire (first known as a bey, beylik or emirate). While initially a small Turkoman (ethnonym), Turkoman principality during Osman's lifetime, h ...

in northwestern

Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...

in the district of Bilecik,

Söğüt Söğüt (, ) is a town in Bilecik Province, Turkey. It is the seat of Söğüt District.� ...

. The Ottoman dynasty, named after Osman I, ruled the

Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...

from 1299 to 1922. During much of the Empire's history, the sultan was the absolute regent, head of state, and head of government, though much of the power often shifted to other officials such as the

Grand Vizier Grand vizier (; ; ) was the title of the effective head of government of many sovereign states in the Islamic world. It was first held by officials in the later Abbasid Caliphate. It was then held in the Ottoman Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Soko ...

. During the First (1876–78) and Second Constitutional Eras (1908–20) of the late Empire, a shift to a constitutional monarchy was enacted, with the Grand Vizier taking on a prime ministerial role as head of government and heading an elected General Assembly. The imperial family was deposed from power and the sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922 immediately after the

Turkish War of Independence , strength1 = May 1919: 35,000November 1920: 86,000Turkish General Staff, ''Türk İstiklal Harbinde Batı Cephesi'', Edition II, Part 2, Ankara 1999, p. 225August 1922: 271,000Celâl Erikan, Rıdvan Akın: ''Kurtuluş Savaşı tarih ...

. The

Republic of Turkey Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...

was declared the following year. The living members of the dynasty were initially sent into exile as '' personae non-gratae'', though some have been allowed to return and live as private citizens in Turkey. In its current form, the family is known as the

Osmanoğlu family Osmanoğlu is a family belonging to the historical Ottoman dynasty, which was the ruling house of the Ottoman Empire from 1299 until the abolition of the Ottoman sultanate in 1922, and the Ottoman Caliphate from 1517 until the abolition of th ...

History

The Ottoman dynasty operated under several basic premises: that the Sultan governed the empire's entire territory, that every male member of the dynastic family was hypothetically eligible to become Sultan, and that only one person at a time could be the Sultan. Such rules were fairly standard for monarchic empires of the time. The certain processes through which men rose to the Sultanate, however, were very specific to the Ottoman Empire. To go into greater detail about these processes, the history of succession between Sultans can be divided into two eras: the period between the reign of

Orhan Orhan Ghazi (; , also spelled Orkhan; died 1362) was the second sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1323/4 to 1362. He was born in Söğüt, as the son of Osman I. In the early stages of his reign, Orhan focused his energies on conquering mos ...

(1323–1362), the first person to inherit the Ottoman sultanate, and the reign of Ahmed I (1603–1617); and the period following Ahmed I's reign. Sultans of the Ottoman Dynasty

The succession process during the first period was dominated by violence and intra-familial conflict, in which the various sons of the deceased Sultan fought until only one remained alive and, thus, inherited the throne. This tradition was known as fratricide in the Ottoman Empire but may have evolved from tanistry, a similar succession procedure that existed in many Turco-Mongolic dynasties predating the Ottomans. Sons of the Sultan were often given provincial territories to govern until the Sultan's death, at which point they would each vie for the throne. Each son had to, according to historian H. Erdem Cipa, "demonstrate that his fortune was superior to the fortunes of his rivals", a demonstration that often took the form of military accomplishment and ruthlessness. This violence was not considered particularly unexpected or unusual. As Cipa has noted, the Ottoman words for "successor" and "conflict" share the same Arabic root, and indeed, all but one of the successions in this roughly 200-year period involved a resolution by combat. Over time, the combat became increasingly prevalent and recognized, especially after a

Janissary A janissary (, , ) was a member of the elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultan's household troops. They were the first modern standing army, and perhaps the first infantry force in the world to be equipped with firearms, adopted dur ...

uprising negated

Murad II Murad II (, ; June 1404 – 3 February 1451) was twice the sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1421 to 1444 and from 1446 to 1451. Early life Murad was born in June 1404 to Mehmed I, while the identity of his mother is disputed according to v ...

's attempt to abdicate the throne peacefully to his son,

Mehmed II Mehmed II (; , ; 30 March 14323 May 1481), commonly known as Mehmed the Conqueror (; ), was twice the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from August 1444 to September 1446 and then later from February 1451 to May 1481. In Mehmed II's first reign, ...

, in 1444. During the eventual reign of Mehmed II (1451–1481), fratricide was legalized as an official practice; during the reign of

Bayezid II Bayezid II (; ; 3 December 1447 – 26 May 1512) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1481 to 1512. During his reign, Bayezid consolidated the Ottoman Empire, thwarted a pro-Safavid dynasty, Safavid rebellion and finally abdicated his throne ...

(1481–1512), fratricide between Bayezid II's sons occurred before Bayezid II himself died; and after the reign of

Murad III Murad III (; ; 4 July 1546 – 16 January 1595) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1574 until his death in 1595. His rule saw battles with the Habsburg monarchy, Habsburgs and exhausting wars with the Safavid Iran, Safavids. The long-inde ...

(1574–1595), his successor Mehmed III executed 19 brothers to claim the throne. During the second period, the tradition of fratricide was replaced by a simpler and less violent procedure. Starting with the succession from Ahmed I to

Mustafa I Mustafa I (; ‎; ; 1600/1602 – 20 January 1639) was twice the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 22 November 1617 to 26 February 1618, and from 20 May 1622 to 10 September 1623. He was the son of sultan Mehmed III and Halime Sultan. Earl ...

in 1617, the Ottoman throne was inherited by the eldest male blood relative – not necessarily the son – of the Sultan, regardless of how many eligible family members were alive.Tezcan. The Second Ottoman Empire. Page 47. The change in succession procedure was likely instigated by numerous factors, including fratricide's decline in popularity among Ottoman elites and Ahmed I's decision not to kill Mustafa when inheriting the throne from Mehmed III in 1603. With the door open for a policy change, a political debate arose between those who supported unrestricted Sultanic privilege and those who supported a stronger, centralized law system that would supersede even the Sultan's power to an extent. Historian Baki Tezcan has argued that the latter faction – with the help of the influential '' şeyhülislam'' Hocazade Esad Efendi – was able to prevail in this instance. The bloodless succession from Ahmed I to Mustafa I in 1617 "provided a reference for the eventual stabilization of the rule of Ottoman succession, the very regulation of which by an outside force was in effect a constitutional check on the dynastic prerogative," Tezcan has written. The precedent set in 1617 stuck, as the eldest living family member successfully inherited the throne in each of the following 21 successions, with relatively few instances of a son inheriting the throne.

Succession practices

From the fourteenth through the late sixteenth centuries, the Ottomans practiced open succession – something historian Donald Quataert has described as "

survival of the fittest "Survival of the fittest" is a phrase that originated from Darwinian evolutionary theory as a way of describing the mechanism of natural selection. The biological concept of fitness is defined as reproductive success. In Darwinian terms, th ...

, not

eldest ''Eldest'' is the second novel in ''The Inheritance Cycle'' by Christopher Paolini and the sequel to ''Eragon''. It was first published in hardcover on August 23, 2005, and was released in paperback in September 2006. ''Eldest'' has been releas ...

, son." During their father's lifetime, all adult sons of the reigning

's sultan were given provincial governorships in order to gain experience in administration (a practice commonly found in Central Asian tradition), accompanied and mentored by their retinues and tutors. Upon the death of their father, the reigning sultan, these sons would fight amongst themselves for the succession until one emerged triumphant. The first son to reach the capital and seize control of the court would usually become the new ruler. The proximity of a Şehzade (=Prince) to

Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...

improved his chances of success, simply because he could hear of his father's death, seize control of the Ottoman court in the capital, and declare himself Sultan first. A Sultan could thus hint at his preferred successor by giving a favourite son a closer governorship.

, for instance, had to fight his brother Cem Sultan in the 1480s for the right to rule. Occasionally, the half-brothers would begin the struggle even before the death of their father. Under

Suleiman the Magnificent Suleiman I (; , ; 6 November 14946 September 1566), commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in the Western world and as Suleiman the Lawgiver () in his own realm, was the List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman sultan between 1520 a ...

(1520–1566), strife between his sons Şehzade Mustafa and Şehzade Selim (later Selim II) caused such internal turmoil that Suleiman ordered the deaths of both Şehzade Mustafa and another son, Şehzade Bayezid, leaving Şehzade Selim the sole heir. During the reigns of Suleiman I and Selim II, the '' Haseki Sultan'' (Ottoman Turkish: خاصکى سلطان) or chief consort rose to greater prominence. Gaining power within the Imperial Harem, the

favourite A favourite was the intimate companion of a ruler or other important person. In Post-classical Europe, post-classical and Early modern Europe, early-modern Europe, among other times and places, the term was used of individuals delegated signifi ...

was able to manoeuvre to ensure the succession for one of her sons. This led to a short period of effective

primogeniture Primogeniture () is the right, by law or custom, of the firstborn Legitimacy (family law), legitimate child to inheritance, inherit all or most of their parent's estate (law), estate in preference to shared inheritance among all or some childre ...

. However, unlike in the earlier period, when the sultan had already defeated his brothers and potential rivals for the throne in battle, these sultans had the problem of many half-brothers who could act as the focus for rival factions. Thus, to prevent attempts at seizing the throne, reigning sultans practiced

fratricide Fratricide (; – the assimilated root of 'to kill, cut down') is the act of killing one's own brother. It can either be done directly or via the use of either a hired or an indoctrinated intermediary (an assassin). The victim need not be ...

upon accession, starting with

Murad I Murad I (; ), nicknamed ''Hüdavendigâr'' (from – meaning "Head of state, sovereign" in this context; 29 June 1326 – 15 June 1389) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1362 to 1389. He was the son of Orhan Gazi and Nilüfer Hatun. Mura ...

in 1362. Both

and his son Mehmed III had their half-brothers murdered. The killing of all the new sultan's brothers and half-brothers (who were usually quite numerous) was traditionally done by manual strangling with a

silk Silk is a natural fiber, natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be weaving, woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is most commonly produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoon (silk), c ...

cord. As the centuries passed, the ritual killing was gradually replaced by lifetime solitary confinement in the "Golden Cage" or '' kafes'', a room in the harem from where the sultan's brothers could never escape, unless perchance they became heir presumptive. Some had already become mentally unstable by the time they were asked to reign. Mehmed III was the last sultan to have previously held a provincial governorship. Sons now remained within the harem until the death of their father. This not only denied them the ability to form powerful factions capable of usurping their father but also denied them the opportunity to have children while their father remained alive. Thus, when Mehmet's son came to the throne as Ahmed I, he had no children of his own. Moreover, as a minor, there was no evidence he could have children. This had the potential to create a crisis of succession and led to a gradual end to fratricide. Ahmed had some of his brothers killed, but not Mustafa (later

). Similarly,

Osman II Osman II ( ''‘Osmān-i sānī''; ; 3 November 1604 – 20 May 1622), also known as Osman the Young (), was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 26 February 1618 until his regicide on 20 May 1622. Early life Osman II was born at Topkapı Pa ...

allowed his half-brothers

Murad IV Murad IV (, ''Murād-ı Rābiʿ''; , 27 July 1612 – 8 February 1640) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1623 to 1640, known both for restoring the authority of the state and for the brutality of his methods. Murad I ...

and Ibrahim to live. This led to a shift in the 17th century from a system of primogeniture to one based on

agnatic seniority Agnatic seniority is a patrilineality, patrilineal principle of inheritance where the order of succession to the throne prefers the monarch's younger brother over the monarch's own sons. A monarch's children (the next generation) succeed only ...

, in which the eldest male within the dynasty succeeded, also to guarantee adult sultans and prevent both fratricides as well as the sultanate of women. Thus, Mustafa succeeded his brother Ahmed; Suleiman II and Ahmed II succeeded their brother Mehmed IV before being succeeded in turn by Mehmed's son Mustafa II. Agnatic seniority explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his son, but usually by an uncle or brother. It also meant that potential rulers had to wait a long time in the ''kafes'' before ascending the throne, hence the old age of certain sultans upon their enthronement. Although attempts were made in the 19th century to replace agnatic seniority with

, they were unsuccessful, and seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate in 1922. Karateke 2005, p. 37–54

Chronology of sultans

{, class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" border="1" style="width:100%; text-align:center;" !The genealogy of the

Ottoman Sultan The sultans of the Ottoman Empire (), who were all members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental empire from its perceived inception in 1299 to Dissolution of the Ottoman Em ...

s including their mothers , - , Imperial standard of the Ottoman Sultan

List of heirs since 1922

The Ottoman dynasty was expelled from Turkey in 1924 and most members took on the surname Osmanoğlu, meaning "son of Osman." The female members of the dynasty were allowed to return after 1951, and the male members after 1973. Below is a list of people who would have been heirs to the Ottoman throne following the abolition of the sultanate on 1 November 1922. These people have not necessarily made any claim to the throne; for example, Ertuğrul Osman said "Democracy works well in Turkey." {, class="wikitable" , - ! Name ! Title ! Relationship to predecessor and Sultan ! Head of the House of Osman ! Duration as Head of the House of Osman , - , Mehmed VI , Last Ottoman Sultan and Caliph (1918–1922)
36th Head of the House of Osman (1922–1926) , Son of Sultan

Abdulmejid I ʻAbd al-Majīd (ALA-LC romanization of , ), also spelled as Abd ul Majid, Abd ul-Majid, Abd ol Majid, Abd ol-Majid, and Abdolmajid, is a Muslim male given name and, in modern usage, surname. It is built from the Arabic words '' ʻabd'' and ''al-Maj ...

, grandson of Sultan

Mahmud II Mahmud II (, ; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. Often described as the "Peter the Great of Turkey", Mahmud instituted extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms ...

, younger brother of Murad V,

Abdul Hamid II Abdulhamid II or Abdul Hamid II (; ; 21 September 184210 February 1918) was the 34th sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1876 to 1909, and the last sultan to exert effective control over the fracturing state. He oversaw a Decline and modernizati ...

and Mehmed V. , 1 November 1922 – 16 May 1926 , , - , Abdulmejid II , Last Ottoman Caliph (1922–1924)
37th Head of the House of Osman following Mehmed VI's death (1926–1944) , First cousin of Mehmed VI, son of Sultan

Abdülaziz Abdulaziz (; ; 8 February 18304 June 1876) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 25 June 1861 to 30 May 1876, when he was 1876 Ottoman coup d'état, overthrown in a government coup. He was a son of Sultan Mahmud II and succeeded his brother ...

. , 16 May 1926 – 23 August 1944 , , - , Ahmed Nihad , 38th Head of the House of Osman (1944–1954) , First cousin twice removed of Abdulmejid II, grandson of Sultan Murad V. , 23 August 1944 – 4 June 1954 , , - , Osman Fuad , 39th Head of the House of Osman (1954–1973) , Younger half-brother of Ahmed Nihad, grandson of Sultan Murad V. , 4 June 1954 – 19 May 1973 , , - , Mehmed Abdulaziz , 40th Head of the House of Osman (1973–1977) , Second cousin twice removed of Osman Fuad, grandson of Sultan

. , 19 May 1973 – 19 January 1977 , , - , Ali Vâsib , 41st Head of the House of Osman (1977–1983) , Second cousin twice removed of Mehmed Abdulaziz, great-grandson of Sultan Murad V. , 19 January 1977 – 9 December 1983 , , - , Mehmed Orhan , 42nd Head of the House of Osman (1983–1994) , Second cousin once removed of Ali Vâsib, grandson of Sultan

.Pope, Hugh.
Oldest Ottoman to come home at last
, ''

The Independent ''The Independent'' is a British online newspaper. It was established in 1986 as a national morning printed paper. Nicknamed the ''Indy'', it began as a broadsheet and changed to tabloid format in 2003. The last printed edition was publis ...

'' (22 July 1992). , 9 December 1983 – 12 March 1994 , , - , Ertuğrul Osman , 43rd Head of the House of Osman (1994–2009) , First cousin of Mehmed Orhan, grandson of Sultan

.Bernstein, Fred. �
Ertugrul Osman, Link to Ottoman Dynasty, Dies at 97
��, ''

The New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''NYT'') is an American daily newspaper based in New York City. ''The New York Times'' covers domestic, national, and international news, and publishes opinion pieces, investigative reports, and reviews. As one of ...

'' (24 September 2009). , 12 March 1994 – 23 September 2009 , , - , Bayezid Osman , 44th Head of the House of Osman (2009–2017) , Second cousin of Ertuğrul Osman, great-grandson of Sultan Mehmed V.'Osmanoğulları'na insanlık şehadet edecek'
", '' Zaman'' (27 September 2009). , 23 September 2009 – 6 January 2017 , , - , Dündar Ali Osman , 45th Head of the House of Osman (2017–2021) , Second cousin once removed of Bayezid Osman, great-grandson of Sultan Abdul Hamid II. , 6 January 2017 – 18 January 2021 , , - , Harun Osman , 46th Head of the House of Osman (2021–present) , Younger brother of Dündar Ali Osman, great-grandson of Sultan Abdul Hamid II. , 18 January 2021–present , , -

Family tree, showing relationships among the heads of the Ottoman dynasty since 1922

* ''

(1785–1839; 30th Sultan and 23rd Ottoman Caliph: 1808–1839)'' ** ''

(1823–1861; 31st Sultan and 24th Ottoman Caliph: 1839–1861)'' *** '' Murad V (1840–1904; 33rd Sultan and 26th Ottoman Caliph: 1876)'' **** '' Şehzade Mehmed Selaheddin (1861–1915)'' *****'' Ahmed Nihad (1883–1954; 38th Head of the House of Osman: 1944–1954)'' ****** '' Ali Vâsib (1903–1983; 41st Head of the House of Osman: 1977–1983)'' ***** '' Osman Fuad (1895–1973; 39th Head of the House of Osman: 1954–1973)'' *** ''

(1842–1918; 34th Sultan and 27th Ottoman Caliph: 1876–1909)'' ****'' Şehzade Mehmed Selim (1870–1937)'' ***** '' Şehzade Mehmed Abdülkerim (1906–1935)'' ******'' Dündar Ali Osman (1930–2021): 45th Head of the House of Osman: 2017–2021)'' ****** Harun Osman (born 1932): 46th Head of the House of Osman: (2021–present) ****'' Şehzade Mehmed Abdülkadir (1878–1944)'' *****'' Mehmed Orhan (1909–1994; 42nd Head of the House of Osman: 1983–1994)'' **** '' Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin (1885–1949)'' ***** '' Ertuğrul Osman (1912–2009; 43rd Head of the House of Osman: 1994–2009)'' *** '' Mehmed V (1844–1918; 35th Sultan and 28th Ottoman Caliph: 1909–1918)'' ***'' Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin (1849–1876)'' **** '' Şehzade Ibrahim Tevfik (1874–1931)'' ***** '' Bayezid Osman (1924–2017; 44th Head of the House of Osman: 2009–2017)'' *** '' Mehmed VI Vahideddin (1861–1926; 36th and last Sultan and 29th Ottoman Caliph: 1918–1922; 36th Head of the House of Osman: 1922–1926)'' ** '' Abdulaziz (1830–1876; 32nd Sultan and 25th Ottoman Caliph: 1861–1876)'' ***'' Abdulmejid II (1868–1944; 30th and last Ottoman Caliph: 1922–1924; 37th Head of the House of Osman: 1926–1944)'' *** '' Şehzade Mehmed Seyfeddin (1874–1927)'' **** '' Mehmed Abdulaziz (1901–1977; 40th Head of the House of Osman: 1973–1977)''

Notes

References

External links

* * * In English
Official website of the immediate living descendants of the Ottoman dynastyEverything about Ottoman Empire
Everything about the history, culture and civilization of Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire – The Family
In Turkish
Osmanlı Hanedanlığı, Ottoman dynastyOsmanlı SultanlarıTarihvemedeniyet.org
In French * , - , - , - {{Authority control Line of succession Line of succession 1281 establishments in Europe 1281 establishments in Asia Maturidis