Kublai ;
Mongolian script
The classical or traditional Mongolian script, also known as the , was the first Mongolian alphabet, writing system created specifically for the Mongolian language, and was the most widespread until the introduction of Cyrillic script, Cyrillic ...
: ; (23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294), also known by his
temple name as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and his
regnal name Setsen Khan, was the founder of the
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
of China and the fifth
khagan-
emperor
An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother ( ...
of the
Mongol Empire from 1260 to 1294, although after the
division of the empire this was a nominal position. He proclaimed the empire's dynastic name "Great Yuan" in 1271, and ruled Yuan China until his death in 1294.
Kublai was the second son of
Tolui by his chief wife
Sorghaghtani Beki, and a grandson of
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan (born Temüjin; ; xng, Temüjin, script=Latn; ., name=Temujin – August 25, 1227) was the founder and first Great Khan (Emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the List of largest empires, largest contiguous empire in history a ...
. He was almost 12 when Genghis Khan died in 1227. He had succeeded his older brother
Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother
Ariq Böke in the
Toluid Civil War
The Toluid Civil War was a war of succession fought between Kublai Khan and his younger brother, Ariq Böke, from 1260 to 1264. Möngke Khan died in 1259 with no declared successor, precipitating infighting between members of the Tolui family ...
lasting until 1264. This episode marked the beginning of the fragmentation of the empire. Kublai's real power was limited to the Yuan Empire, even though as Khagan he still had influence in the
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate ( fa, ایل خانان, ''Ilxānān''), known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (, ''Qulug-un Ulus''), was a khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanid realm ...
and, to a significantly lesser degree, in the
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde, self-designated as Ulug Ulus, 'Great State' in Turkic, was originally a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the fragmen ...
. If one considers the Mongol Empire at that time as a whole, his realm reached from the
Pacific Ocean
The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean (or, depending on definition, to Antarctica) in the south, and is bounded by the conti ...
to the
Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Rom ...
, from
Siberia
Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is an extensive geographical region, constituting all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has been a part ...
to what is now
Afghanistan
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is borde ...
.
In 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty and formally claimed orthodox succession from prior Chinese dynasties.
[Kublai (18 December 1271), 《建國號詔》 dict to Establish the Name of the State 《元典章》 tatutes of Yuan(in Classical Chinese)] The Yuan dynasty came to rule over most of present-day China,
Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million ...
,
Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic ...
, southern Siberia, and other adjacent areas. He also amassed influence in the Middle East and Europe as khagan. By 1279, the
Yuan conquest of the Song dynasty was completed and Kublai became the first non-
Han emperor to rule all of
China proper.
The imperial portrait of Kublai was part of an album of the portraits of Yuan emperors and empresses, now in the collection of the
National Palace Museum in Taipei. White, the color of the imperial costume of Kublai, was the imperial color of the Yuan dynasty based on the Chinese philosophical concept of the
Five Elements.
Early years
Kublai Khan was the fourth son of
Tolui, and his second son with
Sorghaghtani Beki. As his grandfather
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan (born Temüjin; ; xng, Temüjin, script=Latn; ., name=Temujin – August 25, 1227) was the founder and first Great Khan (Emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the List of largest empires, largest contiguous empire in history a ...
advised, Sorghaghtani chose a
Buddhist
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
Tangut woman as her son's nurse, whom Kublai later honored highly. On his way home after the
Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia, Genghis Khan performed a ceremony on his grandsons Möngke and Kublai after their first hunt in 1224 near the
Ili River. Kublai was nine years old and with his eldest brother killed a rabbit and an antelope. After his grandfather smeared fat from the killed animals onto Kublai's middle finger in accordance with a Mongol tradition, he said "The words of this boy
Kublai are full of wisdom, heed them well – heed them all of you." The elderly Genghis Khan would die three years after this event in 1227, when Kublai was 12. Kublai's father Tolui would serve as regent for two years until Genghis' successor, Kublai's third uncle
Ogedei, was enthroned as Khagan in 1229.
After the
Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, in 1236, Ogedei gave
Hebei
Hebei or , (; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, and ...
(attached with 80,000 households) to the family of Tolui, who died in 1232. Kublai received an estate of his own, which included 10,000 households. Because he was inexperienced, Kublai allowed local officials free rein. Corruption amongst his officials and aggressive taxation caused large numbers of ethnic Han peasants to flee, which led to a decline in tax revenues. Kublai quickly came to his
appanage in Hebei and ordered reforms.
Sorghaghtani Beki sent new officials to help him and tax laws were revised. Thanks to those efforts, many of the people who fled returned.
The most prominent, and arguably most influential, component of Kublai Khan's early life was his study and a strong attraction to contemporary
Han culture
The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctive va ...
. Kublai invited Haiyun, the leading Buddhist monk in northern China, to his
ordo in Mongolia. When he met Haiyun in
Karakorum
Karakorum ( Khalkha Mongolian: Хархорум, ''Kharkhorum''; Mongolian Script:, ''Qaraqorum''; ) was the capital of the Mongol Empire between 1235 and 1260 and of the Northern Yuan dynasty in the 14–15th centuries. Its ruins lie in t ...
in 1242, Kublai asked him about the philosophy of Buddhism. Haiyun named Kublai's son, who was born in 1243,
Zhenjin (Chinese: ''True Gold'').
Haiyun also introduced Kublai to the formerly
Daoist (Taoist), and at the time Buddhist monk, Liu Bingzhong. Liu was a painter, calligrapher, poet, and mathematician, and he became Kublai's advisor when Haiyun returned to his temple in modern
Beijing
}
Beijing ( ; ; ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the Capital city, capital of the China, People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's Li ...
. Kublai soon added the
Shanxi scholar Zhao Bi to his entourage. Kublai employed people of other nationalities as well, for he was keen to balance local and imperial interests,
Mongol
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member ...
and
Turkic.
Victory in northern China
In 1251, Kublai's eldest brother
Möngke became Khan of the Mongol Empire, and Khwarizmian
Mahmud Yalavach
Mahmud Yalavach was a MuslimGenghis Khan: Conqueror of the World By Leo De Hartog, pg. 85 administrator in the Mongol Empire who ruled over Turkestan as governor and eventually went on to be mayor of Taidu (now Beijing). He was a Khorezmian merchan ...
and Kublai were sent to China. Kublai received the
viceroy
A viceroy () is an official who reigns over a polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix ''vice-'', meaning "in the place of" and the French word ''roy'', meaning " ...
alty over northern China and moved his ordo to central
Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia, officially the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. Its border includes most of the length of China's border with the country of Mongolia. Inner Mongolia also accounts for a ...
. During his years as viceroy, Kublai managed his territory well, boosted the agricultural output of
Henan
Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is a ...
, and increased social welfare spendings after receiving
Xi'an. These acts received great acclaim from ethnic Han warlords and were essential to the founding of the Yuan dynasty. In 1252, Kublai criticized Mahmud Yalavach, who was never highly valued by his ethnic Han associates, over his cavalier execution of suspects during a judicial review, and Zhao Bi attacked him for his presumptuous attitude toward the throne. Möngke dismissed Mahmud Yalavach, which met with resistance from Han Confucian-trained officials.
In 1253, Kublai was ordered to attack
Yunnan
Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the ...
and he tried to ask the
Dali Kingdom to submit. The ruling Gao family resisted and killed Mongol
envoys. The Mongols divided their forces into three. One wing rode eastward into the
Sichuan
Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of t ...
basin. The second column under
Subutai's son
Uryankhadai
Uriyangkhadai ( Modern Mongolian: Mongolian Cyrillic: Урианхадай, , , – ) was an Uriankhai general in the Mongol Empire who led several campaigns during the 13th century Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty, including the first Mongo ...
took a difficult route into the mountains of western Sichuan.
Kublai went south over the grasslands and met up with the first column. While Uryankhadai travelled along the lakeside from the north, Kublai took the capital city of
Dali and spared the residents despite the slaying of his ambassadors. The Dali emperor Duan Xingzhi (
段興智) himself defected to the Mongols, who used his troops to conquer the rest of Yunnan. Duan Xingzhi, the last king of Dali, was appointed by
Möngke Khan
Möngke ( mn, ' / Мөнх '; ; 11 January 1209 – 11 August 1259) was the fourth khagan-emperor of the Mongol Empire, ruling from 1 July 1251, to 11 August 1259. He was the first Khagan from the Toluid line, and made significant reform ...
as the first ''
tusi'' or local ruler; Duan accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there.
After Kublai's departure, unrest broke out among certain factions. In 1255 and 1256, Duan Xingzhi was presented at court, where he offered
Möngke Khan
Möngke ( mn, ' / Мөнх '; ; 11 January 1209 – 11 August 1259) was the fourth khagan-emperor of the Mongol Empire, ruling from 1 July 1251, to 11 August 1259. He was the first Khagan from the Toluid line, and made significant reform ...
maps of Yunnan and counsels about the vanquishing of the tribes who had not yet surrendered. Duan then led a considerable army to serve as guides and vanguards for the Mongol army. By the end of 1256, Uryankhadai had completely pacified
Yunnan
Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the ...
.
Kublai was attracted by the abilities of
Tibetan monks as healers. In 1253 he made
Drogön Chögyal Phagpa of the
Sakya school, a member of his entourage. Phagpa bestowed on Kublai and his wife,
Chabi (Chabui), an
empowerment
Empowerment is the degree of autonomy and self-determination in people and in communities. This enables them to represent their interests in a responsible and self-determined way, acting on their own authority. It is the process of becoming strong ...
(initiation ritual). Kublai appointed Lian Xixian of the
Kingdom of Qocho (1231–1280) the head of his pacification commission in 1254. Some officials, who were jealous of Kublai's success, said that he was getting above himself and dreaming of having his own empire by competing with Möngke's capital
Karakorum
Karakorum ( Khalkha Mongolian: Хархорум, ''Kharkhorum''; Mongolian Script:, ''Qaraqorum''; ) was the capital of the Mongol Empire between 1235 and 1260 and of the Northern Yuan dynasty in the 14–15th centuries. Its ruins lie in t ...
. Möngke Khan sent two tax inspectors, Alamdar (Ariq Böke's close friend and governor in North China) and Liu Taiping, to audit Kublai's officials in 1257. They found fault, listed 142 breaches of regulations, accused Han officials and executed some of them, and Kublai's new pacification commission was abolished.
Kublai sent a two-man embassy with his wives and then appealed in person to Möngke, who publicly forgave his younger brother and reconciled with him.
The Daoists had obtained their wealth and status by seizing
Buddhist temples. Möngke repeatedly demanded that the Daoists cease their denigration of Buddhism and ordered Kublai to end the clerical strife between the Daoists and Buddhists in his territory. Kublai called a conference of Daoist and Buddhist leaders in early 1258. At the conference, the Daoist claim was officially refuted, and Kublai forcibly converted 237 Daoist temples to Buddhism and destroyed all copies of the Daoist texts. Kublai Khan and the
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
clearly favored Buddhism, while his counterparts in the
Chagatai Khanate, the
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde, self-designated as Ulug Ulus, 'Great State' in Turkic, was originally a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the fragmen ...
, and the
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate ( fa, ایل خانان, ''Ilxānān''), known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (, ''Qulug-un Ulus''), was a khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanid realm ...
later converted to
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or '' Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the ...
at various times in history –
Berke
Berke Khan (died 1266) (also Birkai; , tt-Cyrl, Бәркә хан) was a grandson of Genghis Khan and a Mongol military commander and ruler of the Golden Horde (division of the Mongol Empire) who effectively consolidated the power of the Blue ...
of the
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde, self-designated as Ulug Ulus, 'Great State' in Turkic, was originally a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the fragmen ...
being the only Muslim during Kublai's era (his successor did not convert to Islam).
In 1258, Möngke put Kublai in command of the Eastern Army and summoned him to assist with an attack on Sichuan. As he was suffering from
gout
Gout ( ) is a form of inflammatory arthritis characterized by recurrent attacks of a red, tender, hot and swollen joint, caused by deposition of monosodium urate monohydrate crystals. Pain typically comes on rapidly, reaching maximal intens ...
, Kublai was allowed to stay home, but he moved to assist Möngke anyway. Before Kublai arrived in 1259, word reached him that Möngke had died. Kublai decided to keep the death of his brother secret and continued the attack on
Wuhan
Wuhan (, ; ; ) is the capital of Hubei Province in the People's Republic of China. It is the largest city in Hubei and the most populous city in Central China, with a population of over eleven million, the ninth-most populous Chinese city a ...
, near the
Yangtze
The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ; ) is the longest river in Asia, the third-longest in the world, and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains (Tibetan Plateau) and flows ...
. While Kublai's force besieged
Wuchang, Uryankhadai joined him. The
Song
A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetiti ...
minister
Jia Sidao secretly approached Kublai to propose terms. He offered an annual tribute of 200,000
s of silver and 200,000
bolts of silk, in exchange for Mongol agreement to the Yangtze as the frontier between the states. Kublai declined at first but later reached a peace agreement with Jia Sidao.
Enthronement and civil war
Kublai received a message from his wife that his younger brother
Ariq Böke had been raising troops, so he returned north to the Mongolian Plateau.
Before he arrived, he learned that Ariq Böke had held a ''
kurultai'' (Mongol great council) at the capital
Karakorum
Karakorum ( Khalkha Mongolian: Хархорум, ''Kharkhorum''; Mongolian Script:, ''Qaraqorum''; ) was the capital of the Mongol Empire between 1235 and 1260 and of the Northern Yuan dynasty in the 14–15th centuries. Its ruins lie in t ...
, which had named him Great Khan with the support of most of Genghis Khan's descendants. Kublai and the fourth brother, the Il-Khan
Hulagu, opposed this. Kublai's ethnic Han staff encouraged Kublai to ascend the throne, and almost all the senior princes in northern China and
Manchuria
Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endo demonym " Manchu") for a historical and geographic region in Northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and parts of the Russian Far East (Outer M ...
supported his candidacy.
Upon returning to his own territories, Kublai summoned his own kurultai. Fewer members of the royal family supported Kublai's claims to the title, though the small number of attendees included representatives of all the
Borjigin
A Borjigin, ; ; russian: Борджигин, Bordžigin; English plural: Borjigins or Borjigid (from Middle Mongolian);''Histoire des campagnes de Gengis Khan'', p. 119. Manchu plural: is a member of the Mongol sub-clan, which started with ...
lines except that of
Jochi. This kurultai proclaimed Kublai Great Khan, on April 15, 1260, despite Ariq Böke's apparently legal claim to become khan.
This led to warfare between Kublai and Ariq Böke, which resulted in the destruction of the Mongol capital at Karakorum. In
Shaanxi
Shaanxi (alternatively Shensi, see § Name) is a landlocked province of China. Officially part of Northwest China, it borders the province-level divisions of Shanxi (NE, E), Henan (E), Hubei (SE), Chongqing (S), Sichuan (SW), Gansu (W), N ...
and Sichuan, Möngke's army supported Ariq Böke. Kublai dispatched Lian Xixian to Shaanxi and Sichuan, where they executed Ariq Böke's civil administrator Liu Taiping and won over several wavering generals. To secure the southern front, Kublai attempted a diplomatic resolution and sent envoys to
Hangzhou
Hangzhou ( or , ; , , Standard Chinese, Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), also Chinese postal romanization, romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang, China. It is located in the northwestern part of the prov ...
, but Jia broke his promise and arrested them.
Kublai sent Abishqa as new khan to the
Chagatai Khanate. Ariq Böke captured Abishqa, two other princes, and 100 men, and he had his own man,
Alghu, crowned khan of
Chagatai's territory. In the first armed clash between Ariq Böke and Kublai, Ariq Böke lost and his commander Alamdar was killed at the battle. In revenge, Ariq Böke had Abishqa executed. Kublai cut off supplies of food to Karakorum with the support of his cousin
Kadan, son of
Ögedei Khan. Karakorum quickly fell to Kublai's large army, but following Kublai's departure it was temporarily re-taken by Ariq Böke in 1261. Yizhou governor Li Tan revolted against Mongol rule in February 1262, and Kublai ordered his Chancellor
Shi Tianze and Shi Shu to attack Li Tan. The two armies crushed Li Tan's revolt in just a few months and Li Tan was executed. These armies also executed Wang Wentong, Li Tan's father-in-law, who had been appointed the Chief Administrator of the
Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) early in Kublai's reign and became one of Kublai's most trusted Han Chinese officials. The incident instilled in Kublai a distrust of ethnic Hans. After becoming emperor, Kublai banned granting the titles of and tithes to ethnic Han warlords.
Chagatayid Khan Alghu, who had been appointed by Ariq Böke, declared his allegiance to Kublai and defeated a punitive expedition sent by Ariq Böke in 1262. The Ilkhan Hulagu also sided with Kublai and criticized Ariq Böke. Ariq Böke surrendered to Kublai at Xanadu on August 21, 1264. The rulers of the western khanates acknowledged Kublai's victory and rule in Mongolia.
When Kublai summoned them to a new ''kurultai'', Alghu Khan demanded recognition of his illegal position from Kublai in return. Despite tensions between them, both Hulagu and
Berke
Berke Khan (died 1266) (also Birkai; , tt-Cyrl, Бәркә хан) was a grandson of Genghis Khan and a Mongol military commander and ruler of the Golden Horde (division of the Mongol Empire) who effectively consolidated the power of the Blue ...
, khan of the
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde, self-designated as Ulug Ulus, 'Great State' in Turkic, was originally a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the fragmen ...
, at first accepted Kublai's invitation. However, they soon declined to attend the ''kurultai''. Kublai pardoned Ariq Böke, although he executed Ariq Böke's chief supporters.
Reign
Great Khan of the Mongols
The mysterious deaths of three
Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, the
Siege of Baghdad (1258)
The siege of Baghdad was a siege that took place in Baghdad in 1258, lasting for 13 days from January 29, 1258 until February 10, 1258. The siege, laid by Ilkhanate Mongol forces and allied troops, involved the investment, capture, and sac ...
, and unequal distribution of war spoils strained the Ilkhanate's relations with the Golden Horde. In 1262, Hulagu's complete purge of the Jochid troops and support for Kublai in his conflict with Ariq Böke brought open war with the Golden Horde. Kublai reinforced Hulagu with 30,000 young Mongols in order to stabilize the political crises in the western regions of the Mongol Empire. When Hulagu died on February 8, 1264, Berke marched to cross near
Tbilisi
Tbilisi ( ; ka, თბილისი ), in some languages still known by its pre-1936 name Tiflis ( ), is the capital and the largest city of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Kura River with a population of approximately 1.5 million pe ...
to conquer the Ilkhanate but died on the way. Within a few months of these deaths, Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate also died. In the new official version of his family's history, Kublai refused to write Berke's name as the khan of the Golden Horde because of Berke's support for Ariq Böke and wars with Hulagu; however, Jochi's family was fully recognized as legitimate family members.
Kublai Khan named
Abaqa as the new Ilkhan (obedient khan) and nominated Batu's grandson
Mentemu
Möngke Temür ( or ) or Dudu Mengtemu (Manchu: ;遼寧省檔案館 『滿州實錄 上函』 ) (1370–1433) was a Jurchen chieftain of the Odoli tribe, one of the three tribes of the lower Sunggari river valley in Manchuria. In the 1380s the tri ...
for the throne of
Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde. The Kublaids in the east retained
suzerainty
Suzerainty () is the rights and obligations of a person, state or other polity who controls the foreign policy and relations of a tributary state, while allowing the tributary state to have internal autonomy. While the subordinate party is ca ...
over the Ilkhans until the end of their regime.
Kublai also sent his protege
Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq to overthrow the court of the
Oirat Orghana, the empress of the
Chagatai Khanate, who put her young son
Mubarak Shah on the throne in 1265, without Kublai's permission after her husband's death.
Prince
Kaidu of the
House of Ögedei declined to personally attend the court of Kublai. Kublai instigated Baraq to attack Kaidu. Baraq began to expand his realm northward; he seized power in 1266 and fought Kaidu and the Golden Horde. He also pushed out Great Khan's overseer from the
Tarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is an endorheic basin in Northwest China occupying an area of about and one of the largest basins in Northwest China.Chen, Yaning, et al. "Regional climate change and its effects on river runoff in the Tarim Basin, China." Hyd ...
. When Kaidu and Mentemu together defeated Kublai, Baraq joined an alliance with the House of Ögedei and the Golden Horde against Kublai in the east and Abagha in the west. Meanwhile, Mentemu avoided any direct military expedition against Kublai's realm. The Golden Horde promised Kublai their assistance to defeat Kaidu whom Mentemu called the rebel. This was apparently due to the conflict between Kaidu and Mentemu over the agreement they made at the Talas kurultai. The armies of Mongol Persia defeated Baraq's invading forces in 1269. When Baraq died the next year, Kaidu took control of the Chagatai Khanate and recovered his alliance with Mentemu.
Meanwhile, Kublai tried to stabilize his control over the
Korean Peninsula
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic ...
by mobilizing another Mongol invasion after he enthroned
Wonjong of Goryeo
Wonjong of Goryeo (5 April 1219 – 23 July 1274) was the 24th ruler of the Goryeo dynasty of Korea from 1260 to 1274.
Biography
He ascended the throne with the help of Kublai Khan. During his reign, Goryeo became a vassal of the Mongol-founde ...
(r. 1260–1274) in 1259 on
Ganghwado. Kublai also forced two rulers of the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate to call a truce with each other in 1270 despite the Golden Horde's interests in the Middle East and the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have historica ...
.
In 1260, Kublai sent one of his advisors, Hao Ching, to the court of
Emperor Lizong of Song
Emperor Lizong of Song (26 January 1205 – 16 November 1264), personal name Zhao Yun, was the 14th emperor of the Song dynasty of China and the fifth emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He reigned from 1224 to 1264.
His original name was ...
to say that if Lizong submitted to Kublai and surrender his dynasty, he would be granted some autonomy.
Emperor Lizong refused to meet Kublai's demands and imprisoned Hao Ching and when Kublai sent a delegation to release Hao Ching, Emperor Lizong sent them back.
Kublai called two Iraqi siege engineers from the Ilkhanate in order to destroy the fortresses of Song China. After
the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, Kublai's commanders,
Aju
Aju (or Achu; Khalkha Mongolian: ; ) (1227–1287) was a general and chancellor of the Mongol Empire and the Yuan dynasty. He was from the Jarchud clan of the Mongol Uriankhai. His father was Yuan dynasty general Uriyangkhadai and his grandfather ...
and Liu Zheng, proposed a final campaign against the Song dynasty, and Kublai made
Bayan of the Baarin the supreme commander.
Kublai ordered Möngke Temür to revise the second census of the Golden Horde to provide resources and men for his conquest of China. The census took place in all parts of the Golden Horde, including
Smolensk and
Vitebsk in 1274–75. The Khans also sent
Nogai Khan
Nogai, or Noğay (; also spelled Nogay, Nogaj, Nohai, Nokhai, Noqai, Ngoche, Noche, Kara Nokhai, and Isa Nogai; died 1299/1300) was a general and kingmaker of the Golden Horde and a great-great-grandson of Genghis Khan. His grandfather was Bo'al/ ...
to the
Balkans
The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
to strengthen Mongol influence there.
Kublai renamed the Mongol regime in China Dai Yuan in 1271, and sought to sinicize his image as Emperor of China in order to win control of millions of Han Chinese people. When he moved his headquarters to
Khanbaliq
Khanbaliq or Dadu of Yuan () was the winter capital of the Yuan dynasty of China in what is now Beijing, also the capital of the People's Republic of China today. It was located at the center of modern Beijing. The Secretariat directly admini ...
, also called Dadu, at modern-day Beijing, there was an uprising in the old capital Karakorum that he barely contained. Kublai's actions were condemned by traditionalists and his critics still accused him of being too closely tied to Han Chinese culture. They sent a message to him: "The old customs of our Empire are not those of the Han Chinese laws ... What will happen to the old customs?"
Kaidu attracted the other elites of Mongol Khanates, declaring himself to be a legitimate heir to the throne instead of Kublai, who had turned away from the ways of Genghis Khan.
[The History of the Yuan Dynasty] Defections from Kublai's dynasty swelled the Ögedeids' forces.
The Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Han Chinese peoples to conquer all of China. Three years later,
Yuan marines crushed the last of the Song loyalists. The Song Empress Dowager and her grandson,
Emperor Gong of Song, were then settled in
Khanbaliq
Khanbaliq or Dadu of Yuan () was the winter capital of the Yuan dynasty of China in what is now Beijing, also the capital of the People's Republic of China today. It was located at the center of modern Beijing. The Secretariat directly admini ...
where they were given tax-free property, and Kublai's wife Chabi took a personal interest in their well-being. However, Kublai later had Emperor Gong sent away to become a monk to
Zhangye
Zhangye (), formerly romanized as Changyeh or known as Kanchow, is a prefecture-level city in central Gansu Province in the People's Republic of China. It borders Inner Mongolia on the north and Qinghai on the south. Its central district is Ga ...
.
Kublai succeeded in building a powerful empire, created an academy, offices, trade ports and canals and sponsored science and the arts. The record of the Mongols lists 20,166 public schools created during Kublai's reign.
Having achieved real or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia, and having successfully conquered China, Kublai was in a position to look beyond China.
However, Kublai's costly invasions of
Vietnam (1258),
Sakhalin (1264),
Burma (1277),
Champa (1282), and
Vietnam again (1285) secured only the
vassal
A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerai ...
status of those countries.
Mongol invasions of Japan
Major military efforts were taken by Kublai Khan of the Yuan dynasty in 1274 and 1281 to conquer the Japanese archipelago after the submission of the Korean kingdom of Goryeo to vassaldom. Ultimately a failure, the invasion attempts are of m ...
(1274 and 1281), the
third invasion of Vietnam (1287–88), and the
invasion of Java (1293) failed.
At the same time, Kublai's nephew Ilkhan Abagha tried to form
a grand alliance of the Mongols and the Western European powers to defeat the
Mamluk
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
s in Syria and North Africa that constantly invaded the Mongol dominions. Abagha and Kublai focused mostly on foreign alliances, and opened trade routes. Khagan Kublai dined with a large court every day, and met with many ambassadors and foreign merchants.
Kublai's son Nomukhan and his generals occupied
Almaliq from 1266 to 1276. In 1277, a group of Genghisid princes under Möngke's son
Shiregi
Shiregi (, , , ) was a Mongol prince from the Borjigin clan, great-grandson of Genghis Khan.
Biography
Shiregi was born to Möngke Khan and his concubine Bayavchin from Bayaut tribe at unknown time. Initially a supporter of Ariq Böke, he defe ...
rebelled, kidnapped Kublai's two sons and his general
Antong and handed them over to Kaidu and Möngke Temür. The latter was still allied with Kaidu who fashioned an alliance with him in 1269, although Möngke Temür had promised Kublai his military support to protect Kublai from the Ögedeids.
Kublai's armies suppressed the rebellion and strengthened the Yuan garrisons in Mongolia and the
Ili River basin. However, Kaidu took control over Almaliq.
In 1279–80, Kublai decreed death for those who performed slaughtering of cattle according to the legal codes of Islam (
dhabihah) or
Judaism
Judaism ( he, ''Yahăḏūṯ'') is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in th ...
(
kashrut
(also or , ) is a set of dietary laws dealing with the foods that Jewish people are permitted to eat and how those foods must be prepared according to Jewish law. Food that may be consumed is deemed kosher ( in English, yi, כּשר), fr ...
), which offended Mongolian custom.
When
Tekuder seized the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1282, attempting to make peace with the Mamluks, Abaqa's old Mongols under prince
Arghun appealed to Kublai. After the assassination of
Ahmad Fanakati and execution of his sons, Kublai confirmed Arghun's coronation and awarded his commander in chief
Buqa the title of
chancellor
Chancellor ( la, cancellarius) is a title of various official positions in the governments of many nations. The original chancellors were the of Roman courts of justice—ushers, who sat at the or lattice work screens of a basilica or law cou ...
.
Kublai's niece, Kelmish, who married a
Khongirad
The Khongirad ( Mongolian: ᠬᠣᠩᠭᠢᠷᠠᠳ; Хонгирад; Khonghirad; ), also known as Qongirat (Qoŋğırat/Қоңғырат), was one of the major divisions of the Mongol tribes. Variations on the name include Onggirat, Ongirat, Q ...
general of the Golden Horde, was powerful enough to have Kublai's sons Nomuqan and Kokhchu returned. Three leaders of the Jochids,
Tode Mongke
Tuda Mengu, also known as Tode Mongke, Tudamongke ( mn, Тодмөнх/Todmönkh or Tudamönkh, lit=Eternal Brightness), was khan of the Golden Horde, division of the Mongol Empire from 1280 to 1287.
Biography
Tode Mongke was the son of Toqoqan ...
,
Köchü
Khüchü (or Köchü, Konchi, Konichi) was the Khan of the White Horde between c. 1280–1302. He was the eldest son of Sartaqtay and Qujiyan of the Qongirat and a grandson of Orda Khan.
Marco Polo says Köchü had a vast number of people, ...
, and Nogai, agreed to release two princes. The court of the Golden Horde returned the princes as a peace overture to the Yuan dynasty in 1282 and induced Kaidu to release Kublai's general. Konchi, khan of
the White Horde, established friendly relations with the Yuan and the Ilkhanate, and as a reward received luxury gifts and grain from Kublai. Despite political disagreement between contending branches of the family over the office of Khagan, the economic and commercial system continued.
Emperor of the Yuan dynasty
Kublai Khan considered China his main base, realizing within a decade of his enthronement as Great Khan that he needed to concentrate on governing there.
From the beginning of his reign, he adopted Chinese political and cultural models and worked to minimize the influences of regional lords, who had held immense power before and during the Song dynasty. Kublai heavily relied on his Chinese advisers until about 1276. He had many Han Chinese advisers, such as
Liu Bingzhong
Liu Bingzhong (; 1216–1274), or Liu Kan () was a Yuan dynasty court adviser and architect. He was born in Ruizhou (Rui prefecture), during the Jin dynasty. In 1233, he entered the Jin's bureaucracy. He still was an officer after the Mongol Em ...
and
Xu Heng
Xu Heng () (1209–1281) was a Confucianist and educator of the Yuan Dynasty in China.
Xu Heng was born in present-day Xinyang of Henan Province, which was then governed by the Jin dynasty. At the age of 16, he studied Confucian Classics and b ...
, and employed many Buddhist Uyghurs, some of whom were resident commissioners running Chinese districts.
Kublai also appointed the Sakya lama Drogön Chögyal Phagpa ("the Phags pa Lama") his
Imperial Preceptor, giving him power over all the empire's
Buddhist monks
A ''bhikkhu'' (Pali: भिक्खु, Sanskrit: भिक्षु, ''bhikṣu'') is an ordained male in Buddhist monasticism. Male and female monastics (" nun", ''bhikkhunī'', Sanskrit ''bhikṣuṇī'') are members of the Sangha (Buddhist ...
. In 1270, after the Phags pa Lama created the
'Phags-pa script, he was promoted to imperial preceptor. Kublai established the Supreme Control Commission under the Phags pa Lama to administer affairs of Tibetan and Chinese monks. During Phagspa's absence in Tibet, the
Tibetan
Tibetan may mean:
* of, from, or related to Tibet
* Tibetan people, an ethnic group
* Tibetan language:
** Classical Tibetan, the classical language used also as a contemporary written standard
** Standard Tibetan, the most widely used spoken diale ...
monk Sangha rose to high office and had the office renamed the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.
In 1286, Sangha became the dynasty's chief fiscal officer. However, their
corruption
Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense which is undertaken by a person or an organization which is entrusted in a position of authority, in order to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's personal gain. Corruption m ...
later embittered Kublai, and he later relied wholly on younger Mongol aristocrats. Antong of the
Jalairs and Bayan of the Baarin served as grand councillors from 1265, and Oz-temur of the Arulad headed the
censorate. Borokhula's descendant, Ochicher, headed a
kheshig (Mongolian imperial guard) and the palace provision commission.
In the eighth year of Zhiyuan (1271), Kublai officially created the Yuan dynasty and proclaimed the capital as Dadu (, known as
Khanbaliq
Khanbaliq or Dadu of Yuan () was the winter capital of the Yuan dynasty of China in what is now Beijing, also the capital of the People's Republic of China today. It was located at the center of modern Beijing. The Secretariat directly admini ...
or Daidu to the Mongols, at modern-day
Beijing
}
Beijing ( ; ; ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the Capital city, capital of the China, People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's Li ...
) the following year. His summer capital was in
Shangdu (, also called Xanadu, near what today is
Dolon Nor). To unify China,
Kublai began a massive offensive against the remnants of the
Southern Song
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
in 1274 and finally destroyed the Song in 1279, unifying the country at last at the
Battle of Yamen where the last Song Emperor
Zhao Bing committed suicide by jumping into the sea and ending the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
.
Most of the Yuan domains were administered as provinces, also translated as the "Branch Secretariat", each with a governor and vice-governor. This included
China proper,
Manchuria
Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endo demonym " Manchu") for a historical and geographic region in Northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and parts of the Russian Far East (Outer M ...
,
Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million ...
, and a special Zhendong branch Secretariat that extended into the Korean Peninsula.
The Central Region () was separate from the rest, consisting of much of present-day
North China
North China, or Huabei () is a geographical region of China, consisting of the provinces of Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei, Shanxi and Inner Mongolia. Part of the larger region of Northern China (''Beifang''), it lies north of the Qinling–Hu ...
. It was considered the most important region of the dynasty and was directly governed by the
Zhongshu Sheng
The Zhongshu Sheng (), also known as the Palace Secretariat or Central Secretariat, was one of the departments of the Three Departments and Six Ministries government structure in imperial China from Cao Wei (220–266) until the early Ming dynast ...
at Dadu. Tibet was governed by another top-level administrative department called the
Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs __NOTOC__
The Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs, or Xuanzheng Yuan () was a government agency of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China to handle Buddhist affairs across the empire in addition to managing the territory of Tibet. It was origi ...
.
Kublai promoted economic growth by rebuilding the
Grand Canal, repairing public buildings, and extending highways. However, his domestic policy included some aspects of the old Mongol living traditions, and as his reign continued, these traditions would clash increasingly frequently with traditional Chinese economic and social culture. Kublai decreed that partner merchants of the Mongols should be subject to taxes in 1262 and set up the Office of Market Taxes to supervise them in 1268.
After the Mongol conquest of the Song, the Muslim, Uighur and Chinese merchants expanded their operations to the
South China Sea
The South China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean. It is bounded in the north by the shores of South China (hence the name), in the west by the Indochinese Peninsula, in the east by the islands of Taiwan and northwestern Ph ...
and the
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or ~19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by ...
.
In 1286, maritime trade was put under the Office of Market Taxes. The main source of revenue of the government was the monopoly of salt production.
The Mongol administration had issued paper currencies from 1227 on.
In August 1260, Kublai created the first unified paper currency called
Jiaochao
Jiaochao () is a Chinese word for banknote first used for the currency of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty and later by the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China.
Jin dynasty
The Jurchens swept control over northern China, conquering the Liao dynasty ...
; bills were circulated throughout the Yuan domain with no expiration date. To guard against devaluation, the currency was convertible with silver and gold, and the government accepted tax payments in paper currency. In 1273, Kublai issued a new series of state sponsored bills to finance his conquest of the Song, although eventually a lack of fiscal discipline and inflation turned this move into an economic disaster. It was required to pay only in the form of paper money. To ensure its use, Kublai's government confiscated gold and silver from private citizens and foreign merchants, but traders received government-issued notes in exchange. Kublai Khan is considered to be the first
fiat money maker. The paper bills made collecting taxes and administering the empire much easier and reduced the cost of transporting coins.
In 1287, Kublai's minister Sangha created a new currency, Zhiyuan Chao, to deal with a budget shortfall. It was non-convertible and denominated in
copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pink ...
cash. Later
Gaykhatu of the Ilkhanate attempted to adopt the system in
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
and the Middle East, which was a complete failure, and shortly afterwards he was assassinated.
桑哥 Sangha was a Tibetan. A rich merchant from the
Madurai Sultanate, Abu Ali (in Chinese, 孛哈里 ''Bèihālǐ'' or 布哈爾 ''Bùhār''), was associated closely with its royal family. After falling out with them, he moved to Yuan China and received a
Korean woman as his wife and a job from the Mongol Emperor, the woman was formerly Sangha's wife and her father held the title of
채송년 ''Chaesongnyeon'' during the reign of
Chungnyeol of Goryeo
Chungnyeol of Goryeo (3 April 1236 – 30 July 1308) was the 25th ruler of the medieval Korean kingdom of Goryeo from 1274 to 1308. He was the son of Wonjong, his predecessor on the throne. Chungnyeol was king during the Mongol Invasions of Ja ...
according to the ''
Dongguk Tonggam'', ''
Goryeosa
The ''Goryeosa'' (), or ''History of Goryeo'', is the main surviving historical record of Korea's Goryeo dynasty. It was composed nearly a century after the fall of Goryeo, during the reign of King Sejong, undergoing repeated revisions between ...
'' and
Liu Mengyan's ''Zhōng'ānjí'' (''中俺集'').
Kublai encouraged Asian arts and demonstrated religious tolerance. Despite his anti-Daoist edicts, Kublai respected the Daoist master and appointed Zhang Liushan as the patriarch of the Daoist ''Xuánjiào'' (玄教, "Mysterious Order"). Under Zhang's advice, Daoist temples were put under the Academy of Scholarly Worthies. Several Europeans visited the empire, notably
Marco Polo
Marco Polo (, , ; 8 January 1324) was a Venetian merchant, explorer and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. His travels are recorded in '' The Travels of Marco Polo'' (also known as ''Book of the Marv ...
in the 1270s, who may have seen the summer capital Shangdu.
During the Southern Song, the descendant of
Confucius
Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
at
Qufu,
Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to
Quzhou
Quzhou is a prefecture-level city in western Zhejiang province, People's Republic of China. Sitting on the upper course of the Qiantang River, it borders Hangzhou to the north, Jinhua to the east, Lishui to the southeast, and the provinces of ...
, while the newly established
Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
The Jin dynasty (,
; ) or Jin State (; Jurchen: Anchun Gurun), officially known as the Great Jin (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 1115 and 1234. Its name is sometimes written as Kin, Jurchen Jin, Jinn, or Chin
in ...
in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, once in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng.
The southern branch still remained in Quzhou where they lived to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000.
Yuan Emperors like Kublai Khan forbade practices such as butchering according to Jewish (
kashrut
(also or , ) is a set of dietary laws dealing with the foods that Jewish people are permitted to eat and how those foods must be prepared according to Jewish law. Food that may be consumed is deemed kosher ( in English, yi, כּשר), fr ...
) or Muslim (
dhabihah) legal codes and other restrictive decrees continued.
Circumcision
Circumcision is a procedure that removes the foreskin from the human penis. In the most common form of the operation, the foreskin is extended with forceps, then a circumcision device may be placed, after which the foreskin is excised. Top ...
was also strictly forbidden.
Scientific developments and relations with minorities
Thirty Muslims served as high officials in the court of Kublai Khan. Eight of the dynasty's twelve administrative districts had Muslim governors appointed by Kublai Khan.
Among the Muslim governors was
Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar
Sayyid Ajall Shams al-Din Omar al-Bukhari ( fa, سید اجل شمسالدین عمر بخاری; ; 1211–1279) was Yunnan's first provincial governor, appointed by the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China.
Life
Shams al-Din was of Central Asian ...
, who became administrator of
Yunnan
Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the ...
. He was a well learned man in the
Confucian
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or ...
and Daoist traditions and is believed to have propagated
Islam in China
Islam has been practiced in China since the 7th century CE.. Muslims are a minority group in China, representing 1.6-2 percent of the total population (21,667,000- 28,210,795) according to various estimates. Though Hui Muslims are the most num ...
. Other administrators were
Nasr al-Din (Yunnan)
Nasr al-Din ( fa, نصرالدین; , pinyin: Nàsùládīng) (died 1292) was a provincial governor of Yunnan during the Yuan dynasty, and was the son of Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar.
Life
Nasr al-Din was of Central Asian origin, being a Musli ...
and
Mahmud Yalavach
Mahmud Yalavach was a MuslimGenghis Khan: Conqueror of the World By Leo De Hartog, pg. 85 administrator in the Mongol Empire who ruled over Turkestan as governor and eventually went on to be mayor of Taidu (now Beijing). He was a Khorezmian merchan ...
(mayor of the Yuan capitol).
Kublai Khan patronized Muslim scholars and scientists, and Muslim astronomers contributed to the construction of the observatory in
Shaanxi
Shaanxi (alternatively Shensi, see § Name) is a landlocked province of China. Officially part of Northwest China, it borders the province-level divisions of Shanxi (NE, E), Henan (E), Hubei (SE), Chongqing (S), Sichuan (SW), Gansu (W), N ...
. Astronomers such as
Jamal ad-Din introduced 7 new instruments and concepts that allowed the correction of the Chinese calendar.
Muslim cartographers made accurate maps of all the nations along the
Silk Road
The Silk Road () was a network of Eurasian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over 6,400 kilometers (4,000 miles), it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and rel ...
and greatly influenced the knowledge of
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
rulers and merchants.
Muslim physicians organized hospitals and had their own institutes of Medicine in
Beijing
}
Beijing ( ; ; ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the Capital city, capital of the China, People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's Li ...
and
Shangdu. In Beijing was the renown ''Guang Hui Si'' "Department of extensive mercy", where
Hui medicine and surgery were taught.
Avicenna
Ibn Sina ( fa, ابن سینا; 980 – June 1037 CE), commonly known in the West as Avicenna (), was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, philosophers, and writers of the Islamic ...
's works were also published in China during that period.
Muslim mathematicians introduced
Euclidean Geometry,
Spherical trigonometry and
Arabic numerals
Arabic numerals are the ten numerical digits: , , , , , , , , and . They are the most commonly used symbols to write decimal numbers. They are also used for writing numbers in other systems such as octal, and for writing identifiers such a ...
in China.
Kublai brought siege engineers
Ismail and
Al al-Din Al al-Din (, the name presumably representing Ala-ud-din, d. 1312) was a Muslim Persian counterweight mangonel (or counterweight trebuchet) expert who served in Kublai Khan’s army in the conquest of the Southern Song Dynasty.
In 1271 Kublai Kh ...
to China, and together they invented the "
Muslim trebuchet" (or
Huihui Pao
A trebuchet (french: trébuchet) is a type of catapult that uses a long arm to throw a projectile. It was a common powerful siege engine until the advent of gunpowder. The design of a trebuchet allows it to launch projectiles of greater weight ...
), which was utilized by Kublai Khan during the
Battle of Xiangyang
The Battle of Xiangyang () was a protracted series of battles between the Yuan dynasty and the Southern Song dynasty from 1267 to 1273. The battle was a significant victory for the Yuan dynasty and ended a 30-year defensive campaign waged by th ...
.
Warfare and foreign relations
Although Kublai restricted the functions of the kheshig, he created a new imperial bodyguard, at first entirely ethnic Han in composition but later strengthened with
Kipchak,
Alan
Alan may refer to:
People
*Alan (surname), an English and Turkish surname
* Alan (given name), an English given name
**List of people with given name Alan
''Following are people commonly referred to solely by "Alan" or by a homonymous name.''
* ...
(
Asud), and
Russian units. Once his own kheshig was organized in 1263, Kublai put three of the original kheshigs under the charge of the descendants of Genghis Khan's assistants, Borokhula, Boorchu, and
Muqali. Kublai began the practice of having the four great aristocrats in his kheshig sign
jarlig
A jarlig ( mn, зарлиг, zarlig; russian: ярлык, ''jarlyk'', also transliterated yarlyk in Russian and Turkic, or even more correctly yarlıq, and the Tatar: yarlığ) is an edict or written commandant of Mongol and Chinggisid rulers' ...
s (decrees), a practice that spread to all other Mongol khanates.
Mongol and Han units were organized using the same decimal organization that Genghis Khan used. The Mongols eagerly adopted new artillery and technologies. Kublai and his generals adopted an elaborate, moderate style of military campaigns in southern China. Effective assimilation of the naval techniques of the Han people allowed the Yuan army to quickly conquer the Song.
Tibet and Xinjiang
In 1285 the
Drikung Kagyu sect revolted, attacking Sakya
monasteries. The Chagatayid khan,
Duwa, helped the rebels, laying siege to
Gaochang and defeating Kublai's garrisons in the
Tarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is an endorheic basin in Northwest China occupying an area of about and one of the largest basins in Northwest China.Chen, Yaning, et al. "Regional climate change and its effects on river runoff in the Tarim Basin, China." Hyd ...
. Kaidu destroyed an army at
Beshbalik
Beshbalik () is an ancient archaeological site, now located in Jimsar County, Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang, China. The ancient city was initially called Beiting () or Ting Prefecture (), and was the headquarters of the Beiting Protec ...
and occupied the city the following year. Many Uyghurs abandoned
Kashgar for safer bases back in the eastern part of the Yuan dynasty. After Kublai's grandson
Buqa-Temür crushed the resistance of the
Drikung Kagyu
Drikung Kagyü or Drigung Kagyü ( Wylie: 'bri-gung bka'-brgyud) is one of the eight "minor" lineages of the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism. "Major" here refers to those Kagyü lineages founded by the immediate disciples of Gampopa (1079-1153) w ...
, killing 10,000 Tibetans in 1291, Tibet was fully pacified.
Annexation of Goryeo
Kublai Khan invaded
Goryeo
Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificat ...
on the
Korean Peninsula
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic ...
and made it a tributary vassal state in 1260. After another Mongol intervention in 1273, Goryeo came under even tighter control of the Yuan.
Goryeo became a Mongol military base, and several myriarchy commands were established there. The court of the Goryeo supplied Korean troops and an ocean-going naval force for the Mongol campaigns.
Further naval expansion
Despite the opposition of some of his Confucian-trained advisers, Kublai decided to invade Japan, Burma, Vietnam, and Java, following the suggestions of some of his Mongol officials. He also attempted to subjugate peripheral lands such as
Sakhalin
Sakhalin ( rus, Сахали́н, r=Sakhalín, p=səxɐˈlʲin; ja, 樺太 ''Karafuto''; zh, c=, p=Kùyèdǎo, s=库页岛, t=庫頁島; Manchu: ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ, ''Sahaliyan''; Orok: Бугата на̄, ''Bugata nā''; Nivkh ...
, where its indigenous people eventually submitted to the Mongols by 1308, after Kublai's death. These costly
invasions and conquests and the introduction of paper currency caused inflation. From 1273 to 1276, war against the Southern Song dynasty and Japan made the issue of paper currency expand from 110,000 ding to 1,420,000 ding.
Invasions of Japan
Within Kublai's court his most trusted governors and advisers appointed by meritocracy with the essence of multiculturalism were Mongol,
Semu, Korean, Hui and Han peoples.
[ History of Yuan 『元史』 卷十二 本紀第十二 世祖九 至元十九年七月壬戌(August 9, 1282)「高麗国王請、自造船百五十艘、助征日本。」] Because the
Wokou extended support to the crumbling Southern Song dynasty, Kublai Khan initiated
invasions of Japan.
Kublai Khan twice attempted to invade Japan. It is believed that both attempts were partly thwarted by bad weather or a flaw in the design of ships that were based on river boats without keels, and his fleets were destroyed. The first attempt took place in 1274, with a fleet of 900 ships.
The second invasion occurred in 1281 when Mongols sent two separate forces: 900 ships containing 40,000 Korean, Han, and Mongol troops were sent from Masan, while a force of 100,000 sailed from southern China in 3,500 ships, each close to long. The fleet was hastily assembled and ill-equipped to cope with maritime conditions. In November, they sailed into the treacherous waters that separate Korea and Japan by . The Mongols easily took over
Tsushima Island
is an island of the Japanese archipelago situated in-between the Tsushima Strait and Korea Strait, approximately halfway between Kyushu and the Korean Peninsula. The main island of Tsushima, once a single island, was divided into two in 167 ...
about halfway across the strait and then
Iki Island
, or the , is an archipelago in the Tsushima Strait, which is administered as the city of Iki in Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan. The islands have a total area of with a total population of 28,008. Only four (4) of the twenty-three (23) named island ...
closer to
Kyushu
is the third-largest island of Japan's five main islands and the most southerly of the four largest islands ( i.e. excluding Okinawa). In the past, it has been known as , and . The historical regional name referred to Kyushu and its surround ...
. The Korean fleet reached
Hakata Bay
is a bay in the northwestern part of Fukuoka city, on the Japanese island of Kyūshū. It faces the Tsushima Strait, and features beaches and a port, though parts of the bay have been reclaimed in the expansion of the city of Fukuoka. The b ...
on June 23, 1281, and landed its troops and animals, but the ships from China were nowhere to be seen. Mongol landing forces were subsequently defeated at the Battle of Akasaka and the Battle of Torikai-Gata.
Takezaki Suenaga
was a retainer of the Higo Province, Japan who fought in both the Battle of Bun'ei and the Battle of Kōan during the Mongol invasions of Japan. Suenaga commissioned the '' Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba'', an illustrated handscroll, in order to prov ...
's samurai attacked the Mongol army and fought them, as reinforcements led by Shiraishi Michiyasu arrived and defeated the Mongols, who suffered around 3500 dead.
The
samurai
were the hereditary military nobility and officer caste of medieval and early-modern Japan from the late 12th century until their abolition in 1876. They were the well-paid retainers of the '' daimyo'' (the great feudal landholders). They ...
warriors, following their custom, rode out against the Mongol forces for individual combat but the Mongols held their formation. The Mongols fought as a united force, not as individuals, and bombarded the samurai with exploding missiles and showered them with arrows. Eventually, the remaining Japanese withdrew from the coastal zone inland to a fortress. The Mongol forces did not chase the fleeing Japanese into an area about which they lacked reliable intelligence. In a number of individual skirmishes, known collectively as the Kōan Campaign (弘安の役) or the "Second Battle of Hakata Bay", the Mongol forces were driven back to their ships by the Samurai. The Japanese army was heavily outnumbered, but had fortified the coastal line with two-meter high walls, and was easily able to repulse the Mongolian forces that were launched against it.
Maritime archaeologist Kenzo Hayashida led the investigation that discovered the wreckage of the second invasion fleet off the western coast of
Takashima District, Shiga. His team's findings strongly indicate that Kublai rushed to invade Japan and attempted to construct his enormous fleet in one year, a task that should have taken up to five years. This forced the Chinese to use any available ships, including river boats. Most importantly, the Chinese, under Kublai's control, built many ships quickly in order to contribute to the fleets in both of the invasions. Hayashida theorizes that, had Kublai used standard, well-constructed ocean-going ships with curved keels to prevent capsizing, his navy might have survived the journey to and from Japan and might have conquered it as intended. In October 2011, a wreck, possibly one of Kublai's invasion craft, was found off the coast of
Nagasaki
is the capital and the largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture on the island of Kyushu in Japan.
It became the sole port used for trade with the Portuguese and Dutch during the 16th through 19th centuries. The Hidden Christian Sites in the ...
. David Nicolle wrote in ''The Mongol Warlords'', "Huge losses had also been suffered in terms of casualties and sheer expense, while the myth of Mongol invincibility had been shattered throughout eastern Asia." He also wrote that Kublai was determined to mount a third invasion, despite the horrendous cost to the economy and to his and Mongol prestige of the first two defeats, and only his death and the unanimous agreement of his advisers not to invade prevented a third attempt.
Invasions of Vietnam
Kublai Khan invaded
Đại Việt/Annam (now Vietnam) in a total of five separate incursions between 1257-92, with major campaigns in 1258, 1285, and 1287. These three campaigns are treated by a number of scholars as a success due to the establishment of
tributary relations with Đại Việt despite the Mongols suffering major military defeats. In contrast, Vietnamese historiography regards the war as a major victory against the foreign invaders whom they called "the Mongol yokes."
The first invasion began in 1258 under the united Mongol Empire, as it looked for alternative paths to invade the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
. The Mongol general
Uriyangkhadai was successful in capturing the Vietnamese capital
Thang Long (modern-day Hanoi) before turning north in 1259 to
invade the Song dynasty in modern-day
Guangxi
Guangxi (; ; alternately romanized as Kwanghsi; ; za, Gvangjsih, italics=yes), officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (GZAR), is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China, located in South China and bordering Vietnam ...
as part of a coordinated Mongol attack with armies attacking in
Sichuan
Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of t ...
under
Möngke Khan
Möngke ( mn, ' / Мөнх '; ; 11 January 1209 – 11 August 1259) was the fourth khagan-emperor of the Mongol Empire, ruling from 1 July 1251, to 11 August 1259. He was the first Khagan from the Toluid line, and made significant reform ...
and other Mongol armies attacking in modern-day
Shandong
Shandong ( , ; ; Chinese postal romanization, alternately romanized as Shantung) is a coastal Provinces of China, province of the China, People's Republic of China and is part of the East China region.
Shandong has played a major role in His ...
and
Henan
Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is a ...
. The first invasion also established tributary relations between the Vietnamese dynasty, formerly a Song dynasty tributary state, and the Yuan dynasty.
Intending to demand greater tribute and direct Yuan oversight of local affairs in Đại Việt and Champa, the Yuan launched another invasion in 1285. The second invasion of Đại Việt failed to accomplish its goals, and the Yuan launched a third invasion in 1287 with the intent of replacing the uncooperative Đại Việt ruler
Trần Nhân Tông with the defected Trần prince
Trần Ích Tắc. By the end of the second and third invasions, which involved both initial successes and eventual major defeats for the Mongols, both Đại Việt and Champa decided to accept the nominal supremacy of the Yuan dynasty and became tributary states to avoid further conflict.
Southeast Asia and South Seas
Three expeditions against Burma, in 1277, 1283, and 1287, brought the Mongol forces to the
Irrawaddy Delta
The Irrawaddy Delta or Ayeyarwady Delta lies in the Irrawaddy Division, the lowest expanse of land in Myanmar that fans out from the limit of tidal influence at Myan Aung to the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea, to the south at the mouth of the ...
, whereupon they captured
Bagan, the capital of the
Pagan Kingdom and established their government.
Kublai had to be content with establishing a formal
suzerainty
Suzerainty () is the rights and obligations of a person, state or other polity who controls the foreign policy and relations of a tributary state, while allowing the tributary state to have internal autonomy. While the subordinate party is ca ...
, but Pagan finally became a tributary state, sending tributes to the Yuan court until the Yuan dynasty fell to the
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
in 1368.
Mongol interests in these areas were commercial and tributary relationships.
Kublai Khan maintained close relations with
Siam
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...
, in particular with prince
Mangrai Mangrai ( nod, ; th, มังราย; 1238–1311), also known as Mengrai ( th, เม็งราย),The name according to historical sources is "Mangrai", and this is used in most modern scholarly applications. "Mengrai", popularised by a 19 ...
of Chiangmai and king
Ram Khamheng of Sukhothai.
In fact, Kublai encouraged them to attack the
Khmers
The Khmer people ( km, ជនជាតិខ្មែរ, ) are a Southeast Asian ethnic group native to Cambodia. They comprise over 90% of Cambodia's population of 17 million. after the
Thais were being pushed southwards from
Nanchao.
This happened after king
Jayavarman VIII
Jayavarman VIII ( km, ជ័យវរ្ម័នទី៨), posthumous name Paramesvarapada, was one of the prominent kings of the Khmer empire. His rule lasted from 1243 until 1295, when he abdicated. One of his wives was Queen Chakravartirajad ...
of the
Khmer Empire refused to pay tribute to the Mongols.
Jayavarman VIII was so insistent on not having to pay tribute to Kublai that he had Mongol envoys imprisoned.
These attacks from the Siamese eventually weakened the Khmer Empire. The Mongols then decided to venture south into Cambodia in 1283 by land from
Champa
Champa ( Cham: ꨌꩌꨛꨩ; km, ចាម្ប៉ា; vi, Chiêm Thành or ) were a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of what is contemporary central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd ...
.
They were able to conquer
Cambodia
Cambodia (; also Kampuchea ; km, កម្ពុជា, UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia, spanning an area of , bordered by Thailand ...
by 1284. Cambodia effectively became a vassal state by 1285 when Jayavarman VIII was finally forced to pay tribute to Kublai.
During the last years of his reign, Kublai launched a naval
punitive expedition of 20–30,000 men against
Singhasari
Singhasari ( jv, ꦏꦫꦠꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦔ꧀ꦲꦱꦫꦶ, translit=Karaton Singhasari or , id, Kerajaan Singasari) was a Javanese Hindu kingdom located in east Java between 1222 and 1292. The kingdom succeeded the Kingdom of Kediri as ...
on Java (1293), but the invading Mongol forces were forced to withdraw by
Majapahit after considerable losses of more than 3000 troops. Nevertheless, by 1294, the year that Kublai died, the
Thai kingdoms of
Sukhothai and
Chiang Mai
Chiang Mai (, from th, เชียงใหม่ , nod, , เจียงใหม่ ), sometimes written as Chiengmai or Chiangmai, is the largest city in northern Thailand, the capital of Chiang Mai province and the second largest city in ...
had become vassal states of the Yuan dynasty.
Europe
Under Kublai, direct contact between East Asia and Europe was established, made possible by Mongol control of the central Asian trade routes and facilitated by the presence of efficient postal services. In the beginning of the 13th century, Europeans and Central Asians – merchants, travelers, and missionaries of different orders – made their way to China. The presence of Mongol power allowed large numbers of Yuan subjects, intent on warfare or trade, to travel to other parts of the Mongol Empire, all the way to Rus, Persia, and
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the ...
.
Africa
In the 13th century, the
Sultanate of Mogadishu, through its trade with prior Chinese regimes, had acquired enough of a reputation in Asia to attract the attention of Kublai Khan. According to Marco Polo, Kublai sent an envoy to
Mogadishu
Mogadishu (, also ; so, Muqdisho or ; ar, مقديشو ; it, Mogadiscio ), locally known as Xamar or Hamar, is the capital and List of cities in Somalia by population, most populous city of Somalia. The city has served as an important port ...
to spy out the Sultanate but the delegation was captured and imprisoned. Kublai Khan then sent another envoy to treat for the release of the earlier Mongol delegation sent to Africa.
Capital city
After Kublai Khan was proclaimed Khagan at his residence in
Shangdu on May 5, 1260, he began to organize the country. Zhang Wenqian, a central government official, was sent by Kublai in 1260 to Daming where unrest had been reported in the local population. A friend of Zhang's,
Guo Shoujing
Guo Shoujing (, 1231–1316), courtesy name Ruosi (), was a Chinese astronomer, hydraulic engineer, mathematician, and politician of the Yuan dynasty. The later Johann Adam Schall von Bell (1591–1666) was so impressed with the preserved astr ...
, accompanied him on this mission. Guo was interested in engineering, was an expert astronomer and skilled instrument maker, and he understood that good astronomical observations depended on expertly made instruments. Guo began to construct astronomical instruments, including water clocks for accurate timing and
armillary sphere
An armillary sphere (variations are known as spherical astrolabe, armilla, or armil) is a model of objects in the sky (on the celestial sphere), consisting of a spherical framework of rings, centered on Earth or the Sun, that represent lines of ...
s that represented the celestial globe.
Turkestani architect Ikhtiyar al-Din, also known as "Igder", designed the buildings of the city of the Khagan, Khanbaliq (Dadu). Kublai also employed foreign artists to build his new capital; one of them, a
Newar named
Araniko, built the White
Stupa
A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation.
In Buddhism, circum ...
that was the largest structure in Khanbaliq/Dadu.
Zhang advised Kublai that Guo was a leading expert in hydraulic engineering. Kublai knew the importance of water management for irrigation, transport of grain, and flood control, and he asked Guo to look at these aspects in the area between Dadu (now Beijing) and the Yellow River. To provide Dadu with a new supply of water, Guo found the Baifu spring in Mount Shen and had a channel built to move water to Dadu. He proposed connecting the water supply across different river basins, built new canals with sluices to control the water level, and achieved great success with the improvements he made. This pleased Kublai and Guo was asked to undertake similar projects in other parts of the country. In 1264 he was asked to go to
Gansu
Gansu (, ; alternately romanized as Kansu) is a province in Northwest China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeast part of the province.
The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibe ...
to repair the damage that had been caused to the irrigation systems by the years of war during the Mongol advance through the region. Guo travelled extensively along with his friend Zhang taking notes of the work needed to be done to unblock damaged parts of the system and to make improvements to its efficiency. He sent his report directly to Kublai Khan.
Nayan's rebellion
During the conquest of the
Jin, Genghis Khan's younger brothers received large
appanages in
Manchuria
Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endo demonym " Manchu") for a historical and geographic region in Northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and parts of the Russian Far East (Outer M ...
. Their descendants strongly supported Kublai's coronation in 1260, but the younger generation desired more independence. Kublai enforced Ögedei Khan's regulations that the Mongol noblemen could appoint overseers and the Great Khan's special officials, in their appanages, but otherwise respected appanage rights. Kublai's son Manggala established direct control over
Chang'an
Chang'an (; ) is the traditional name of Xi'an. The site had been settled since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao culture was established in Banpo, in the city's suburbs. Furthermore, in the northern vicinity of modern Xi'an, Qin ...
and
Shanxi in 1272. In 1274, Kublai appointed Lian Xixian to investigate abuses of power by Mongol appanage holders in Manchuria. The region called Lia-tung was immediately brought under the Khagan's control, in 1284, eliminating autonomy of the Mongol nobles there.
Threatened by the advance of Kublai's bureaucratization,
Nayan, a fourth-generation descendant of one of Genghis Khan's brothers, either
Temüge
Temüge (1168–1246) was the youngest brother of Genghis Khan, second son of Yesugei .
''The Secret History of the Mongols'' tells that "when Temujin was 9 years of age, Temuge was three years old." Being the youngest boy in the family, he rec ...
or
Belgutei
Belgutei ( – ) was the son of Yesugei and Sochigel and half-brother to Genghis Khan. He also became general to Genghis Khan. Belgutei was considered a wise counselor and skilled diplomat, and was often used as a messenger by Genghis Khan. With ...
, instigated a revolt in 1287. (More than one prince named Nayan existed and their identity is confused.) Nayan tried to join forces with Kublai's competitor Kaidu in Central Asia. Manchuria's native
Jurchens and
Water Tatars, who had suffered a famine, supported Nayan. Virtually all the fraternal lines under Hadaan, a descendant of
Hachiun, and Shihtur, a grandson of
Qasar, joined Nayan's rebellion,
and because Nayan was a popular prince, Ebugen, a grandson of Genghis Khan's son Khulgen, and the family of Khuden, a younger brother of
Güyük Khan, contributed troops for this rebellion.
The rebellion was crippled by early detection and timid leadership. Kublai sent Bayan to keep Nayan and Kaidu apart by occupying Karakorum, while Kublai led another army against the rebels in Manchuria. Kublai's commander Oz Temür's Mongol force attacked Nayan's 60,000 inexperienced soldiers on June 14, while ethnic Han and Alan guards under Li Ting protected Kublai. The army of
Chungnyeol of Goryeo
Chungnyeol of Goryeo (3 April 1236 – 30 July 1308) was the 25th ruler of the medieval Korean kingdom of Goryeo from 1274 to 1308. He was the son of Wonjong, his predecessor on the throne. Chungnyeol was king during the Mongol Invasions of Ja ...
assisted Kublai in battle. After a hard fight, Nayan's troops withdrew behind their carts, and Li Ting began bombardment and attacked Nayan's camp that night. Kublai's force pursued Nayan, who was eventually captured and executed without bloodshed, by being smothered under felt carpets, a traditional way of executing princes.
Meanwhile, the rebel prince Shikqtur invaded
Liaoning
Liaoning () is a coastal province in Northeast China that is the smallest, southernmost, and most populous province in the region. With its capital at Shenyang, it is located on the northern shore of the Yellow Sea, and is the northernmo ...
but was defeated within a month. Kaidu withdrew westward to avoid a battle. However, Kaidu defeated a major Yuan army in the
Khangai Mountains
The Khangai Mountains ( mn, Хангайн нуруу, Hangain nuruu, ); form a range in central Mongolia, some west of Ulaanbaatar.
Name
Two provinces of Mongolia are named after the Khangai mountains: Arkhangai (North Khangai) and Ovorkhan ...
and briefly occupied Karakorum in 1289. Kaidu had ridden away before Kublai could mobilize a larger army.
Widespread but uncoordinated uprisings of Nayan's supporters continued until 1289; these were ruthlessly repressed. The rebel princes' troops were taken from them and redistributed among the imperial family. Kublai harshly punished the
darughachi
''Darughachi'' (Mongol form) or ''Basqaq'' (Turkic form) were originally designated officials in the Mongol Empire that were in charge of taxes and administration in a certain province. The plural form of the Mongolian word is ''darugha''. They ...
appointed by the rebels in Mongolia and Manchuria.
This rebellion forced Kublai to approve the creation of the
Liaoyang Branch Secretariat
Manchuria under Yuan rule refers to the Yuan dynasty's rule over Manchuria, corresponding to modern Northeast China and Outer Manchuria (including Sakhalin), from 1271 to 1368. Mongol rule over Manchuria was established after the Mongol Empire's ...
on December 4, 1287, while rewarding loyal fraternal princes.
Later years
Kublai Khan dispatched his grandson Gammala to
Burkhan Khaldun in 1291 to ensure his claim to
Ikh Khorig
The Ikh Khorig, or Great Taboo, is a area in the Khentii Aimag (province) of Mongolia, believed by some to be the location of Genghis Khan's grave. It has been carefully guarded for most of its history, and it is only since the late 1980s that t ...
, where Genghis was buried, a sacred place strongly protected by the Kublaids. Bayan was in control of Karakorum and was re-establishing control over surrounding areas in 1293, so Kublai's rival Kaidu did not attempt any large-scale military action for the next three years. From 1293 on, Kublai's army cleared Kaidu's forces from the
Central Siberian Plateau
The Central Siberian Plateau (russian: Среднесибирское плоскогорье, Srednesibirskoye ploskogorye; sah, Орто Сибиир хаптал хайалаах сирэ) is a vast mountainous area in Siberia, one of the Gre ...
.
After his wife Chabi died in 1281, Kublai began to withdraw from direct contact with his advisers, and he issued instructions through one of his other queens, Nambui. Only two of Kublai's daughters are known by name; he may have had others. Unlike the formidable women of his grandfather's day, Kublai's wives and daughters were an almost invisible presence. Kublai's original choice of successor was his son
Zhenjin, who became the head of the
Zhongshu Sheng
The Zhongshu Sheng (), also known as the Palace Secretariat or Central Secretariat, was one of the departments of the Three Departments and Six Ministries government structure in imperial China from Cao Wei (220–266) until the early Ming dynast ...
and actively administered the dynasty according to
Confucian
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or ...
fashion. Nomukhan, after returning from captivity in the
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde, self-designated as Ulug Ulus, 'Great State' in Turkic, was originally a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the fragmen ...
, expressed resentment that Zhenjin had been made heir apparent, but he was banished to the north. An official proposed that Kublai should abdicate in favor of Zhenjin in 1285, a suggestion that angered Kublai, who refused to see Zhenjin. Zhenjin died soon afterwards in 1286, eight years before his father. Kublai regretted this and remained very close to his wife, Bairam (also known as Kokejin).
Kublai became increasingly despondent after the deaths of his favorite wife and his chosen heir Zhenjin. The failure of the military campaigns in Vietnam and Japan also haunted him. Kublai turned to food and drink for comfort, became grossly overweight, and suffered gout and diabetes. The emperor overindulged in alcohol and the traditional meat-rich Mongol diet, which may have contributed to his gout. Kublai sank into depression due to the loss of his family, his poor health and advancing age. Kublai tried every medical treatment available, from Korean shamans to Vietnamese doctors, and remedies and medicines, but to no avail. At the end of 1293, the emperor refused to participate in the traditional New Years' ceremony. Before his death, Kublai passed the seal of Crown Prince to Zhenjin's son
Temür, who would become the next Khagan of the Mongol Empire and the second ruler of the Yuan dynasty. Seeking an old companion to comfort him in his final illness, the palace staff could choose only Bayan, more than 30 years his junior. Kublai weakened steadily, and on February 18, 1294, he died at the age of 78. Two days later, the funeral cortège took his body to the burial place of the khans in Mongolia.
Family
Wives and children
Kublai first married Tegulen but she died very early. Then he married
Chabi of the
Khongirad
The Khongirad ( Mongolian: ᠬᠣᠩᠭᠢᠷᠠᠳ; Хонгирад; Khonghirad; ), also known as Qongirat (Qoŋğırat/Қоңғырат), was one of the major divisions of the Mongol tribes. Variations on the name include Onggirat, Ongirat, Q ...
, who was his most beloved empress. After Chabi's death in 1281, Kublai married Chabi's young cousin,
Nambui
Empress Nambui (,; , fl. 1294) was a Khongirad empress consort of the Yuan dynasty. She was married to Kublai Khan after the death of his first wife Chabi.
Biography
Her birthdate is unknown. She was daughter of Nachen Küregen from Khongirad, ...
, presumably in accordance with Chabi's wish.
Principal wives (first and second ordos):
# Tegülün Khatun (d. 1233) — of unknown parents; she is known to have been from
Khongirad
The Khongirad ( Mongolian: ᠬᠣᠩᠭᠢᠷᠠᠳ; Хонгирад; Khonghirad; ), also known as Qongirat (Qoŋğırat/Қоңғырат), was one of the major divisions of the Mongol tribes. Variations on the name include Onggirat, Ongirat, Q ...
#* Dorji (b. c. 1233, d. 1263) — the director of the Secretariat and head of the Bureau of Military Affairs from 1261, but was sickly and died young.
#
Empress Chabi (b. 1216, m. 1234, d. 1281) — daughter of Alchi Noyan (Anchen) from
Khongirad
The Khongirad ( Mongolian: ᠬᠣᠩᠭᠢᠷᠠᠳ; Хонгирад; Khonghirad; ), also known as Qongirat (Qoŋğırat/Қоңғырат), was one of the major divisions of the Mongol tribes. Variations on the name include Onggirat, Ongirat, Q ...
.
#*
Crown Prince Zhenjin (1243 – 1285) — Prince of Yan (燕王)
#*
Manggala
Manggala (; , ) was a prince of the Mongol-led Chinese Yuan dynasty. He was a son of the Yuan founding emperor Kublai Khan.
Biography
Manggala was born around 1242 to Kublai Khan and his principal wife Chabi as their third son. He was created P ...
(c. 1249–1280) — Prince of Anxi (安西王)
#* Nomughan (d. 1301) — Prince of Beiping (北平王)
#* Khökhechi (d.1271) - Prince of Yunnan
#* Grand Princess of Zhao, Yuelie (赵国大長公主) — married to Ay Buqa, Prince of Zhao (趙王)
#* Princess Ulujin (吾魯真公主) — married to Buqa from Ikires clan
#* Princess Chalun (昌国大长公主) - married to Teliqian from Ikires clan
#* Grand Princess of Lu, Öljei (鲁国长公主) — married to Ulujin Küregen from Khongirad clan, Prince of Lu
#* Grand Princess of Lu, Nangiajin (鲁国大长公主) — married to Ulujin Küregen from Khongirad clan, Princess of Lu, then after Ulujin's death in 1278 to his brother Temür, and after Temür's death in 1290 to a third brother, Manzitai
#*
Princess Jeguk ( 1259-1297)
#
Empress Nambui (m. 1283) — daughter of Nachen, who was the brother of
Empress Chabi
#* Temuchi
Wives from third
ordo:
# Empress Talahai ()
#* Qutluqtemür (fl.1324)
# Empress Nuhan ()
Wives from fourth
ordo:
# Empress Bayaujin () — daughter of Boraqchin of
Bayauts
#*
Toghon — Prince of Zhennan (鎮南王)
# Empress Kökelün ()
Concubines:
# Lady Babahan (八八罕妃子)
# Lady Sabuhu (撒不忽妃子)
# Qoruqchin Khatun — daughter of Qutuqu (brother of Toqto'a Beki) from
Merkits
#* Qoridai — Commander of
Möngke in
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
# Dörbejin Khatun — from
Dörben tribe
#* Aqruqchi (d. 1306) — Prince of Xiping
#* Kököchü (fl. 1313) — Prince of Ning (宁王)
# Hüshijin Khatun — daughter of Boroqul Noyan
#* Ayachi (fl. 1324) — Commander of
Hexi Corridor
The Hexi Corridor (, Xiao'erjing: حْسِ ظِوْلاْ, IPA: ), also known as the Gansu Corridor, is an important historical region located in the modern western Gansu province of China. It refers to a narrow stretch of traversable and rela ...
# Asujin Khatun (阿速眞可敦)
Poetry
Kublai was a prolific writer of Chinese poetry, although most of his works are now lost. Only one Chinese poem written by him is included in the ''Selection of Yuan Poetry'' (元詩選), titled 'Inspiration recorded while enjoying the ascent to Spring Mountain'. It was translated into Mongolian by the Inner Mongolian scholar B.Buyan in the same style as classical Mongolian poetry and transcribed into Cyrillic by Ya.Ganbaatar. It is said that once in spring Kublai Khan went to worship at a Buddhist temple at the
Summer Palace in western Khanbaliq (Beijing) and on his way back ascended
Longevity Hill (''Tumen Nast Uul'' in Mongolian), where he was filled with inspiration and wrote this poem.
This is translated:
Legacy
Kublai's seizure of power in 1260 pushed the Mongol Empire into a new direction. Despite the controversy surrounding his accession, which accelerated the disunity of the Mongols, Kublai's willingness to formalize the Mongol-ruled realm's identification as China
brought the Mongol Empire to international attention. Kublai and his predecessors' conquests were largely responsible for re-creating a unified, militarily powerful China. Yuan rule of
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
,
Manchuria
Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endo demonym " Manchu") for a historical and geographic region in Northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and parts of the Russian Far East (Outer M ...
and
Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million ...
from a capital at modern-day Beijing set a precedent for the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
's
expansion
Expansion may refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
* ''L'Expansion'', a French monthly business magazine
* ''Expansion'' (album), by American jazz pianist Dave Burrell, released in 2004
* ''Expansions'' (McCoy Tyner album), 1970
* ''Expansio ...
into
Inner Asia.
In popular culture
* Kublai and Shangdu or Xanadu are the subject of various later artworks, including the English Romantic
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (; 21 October 177225 July 1834) was an English poet, literary critic, philosopher, and theologian who, with his friend William Wordsworth, was a founder of the Romantic Movement in England and a member of the Lak ...
's poem "
Kubla Khan
''Kubla Khan'' () is a poem written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, completed in 1797 and published in 1816. It is sometimes given the subtitles "A Vision in a Dream" and "A Fragment." According to Coleridge's preface to ''Kubla Khan'', the poe ...
", in which Coleridge makes Xanadu a symbol of mystery and splendor.
* In the 1938 film ''
The Adventures of Marco Polo'',
George Barbier plays the role of Kublai Khan.
* Kublai's summer capital of Xanadu (also known as Shangdu) is the namesake for the palace in which Charles Foster Kane lives in the film, Citizen Kane (1941)
* ''Kabli Khan'', a 1963 Indian
Hindi
Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been ...
-language musical action film by
K. Amarnath which stars
Ajit Khan in the titular role, presents a fictionalized narrative of a ruler seemingly based on Kublai Khan.
* Kublai Khan is referenced in the
Rush song "
Xanadu", on their 1977 album ''
A Farewell To Kings''.
* Kublai Khan is referenced in the
Frankie Goes To Hollywood song "
Welcome to the Pleasuredome (song)
"Welcome to the Pleasuredome" is the title track to the 1984 debut album by British band Frankie Goes to Hollywood. The lyrics of the song were inspired by the poem ''Kubla Khan'' by Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
In March 1985, the album track was ...
", on their 1984 album of the same name.
* Kublai Khan named a heavy metal band formed in
Sherman, Texas , since 2009. Check disambiguation.
* Kublai Khan is portrayed by
Ying Ruocheng in the 1982 miniseries ''
Marco Polo
Marco Polo (, , ; 8 January 1324) was a Venetian merchant, explorer and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. His travels are recorded in '' The Travels of Marco Polo'' (also known as ''Book of the Marv ...
''.
* Kublai Khan is a character played by
Martin Miller Martin Miller may refer to:
* Martin Miller (actor) (1899–1969), Czech actor
* Martin Miller (cricketer, born 1940), English cricketer
* Martin Miller (cricketer, born 1972), English cricketer
* Martin Miller (footballer) (born 1997), Estonian foo ...
in the serial Marco Polo in the first series of British sci-fi show ‘’
Doctor Who
''Doctor Who'' is a British science fiction television series broadcast by the BBC since 1963. The series depicts the adventures of a Time Lord called the Doctor, an extraterrestrial being who appears to be human. The Doctor explores the ...
’’.
* Kublai Khan is portrayed by Kim Myeong-Kuk in the 2012 Korean television series ''
God of War
A war god in mythology associated with war, combat, or bloodshed. They occur commonly in both monotheistic and polytheistic religions.
Unlike most gods and goddesses in polytheistic religions, monotheistic deities have traditionally been p ...
''.
* Kublai Khan is portrayed by
Hu Jun in the 2013 Chinese television series ''
The Legend of Kublai Khan''.
* Kublai Khan plays a significant role in the 2014
Netflix
Netflix, Inc. is an American subscription video on-demand over-the-top streaming service and production company based in Los Gatos, California. Founded in 1997 by Reed Hastings and Marc Randolph in Scotts Valley, California, it offers a ...
production ''
Marco Polo
Marco Polo (, , ; 8 January 1324) was a Venetian merchant, explorer and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. His travels are recorded in '' The Travels of Marco Polo'' (also known as ''Book of the Marv ...
,'' in which he is depicted by
Benedict Wong.
* The Government of
Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million ...
celebrated Kublai Khan's 800th birthday on 15 September 2015 to honour and value his contribution to Mongolian history and promote research works related to
Mongolian history.
* Kublai Khan plays a role in
Jin Yong
Louis Cha Leung-yung (; 10 March 1924 – 30 October 2018), better known by his pen name Jin Yong (), pronounced "Gum Yoong" in Cantonese, was a Chinese wuxia ("martial arts and chivalry") novelist and essayist who co-founded the Hong Kong da ...
's work ''
The Return of the Condor Heroes''.
* Kublai Khan is also mentioned in the game
Ghost of Tsushima as the cousin of the main villain
Khotun Khan
* Kublai Khan is featured as a leader in the game
Civilization VI
''Sid Meier's Civilization VI'' is a turn-based strategy 4X video game developed by Firaxis Games, published by 2K Games, and distributed by Take-Two Interactive. The mobile port was published by Aspyr Media. The latest entry into the ''Civili ...
, with players having the option to use him to lead either Mongolia or China.
* A number one famous Malaysian history genre novelist, Abdul Latip Talib wrote a Malay biography and fictional novel about Kublai Khan titled, ''Kublai Khan: Pengasas Dinasti Yuan''
* Kublai Khan's dialogues with Marco Polo are the subject of
Italo Calvino's novel ''
Invisible Cities
''Invisible Cities'' ( it, Le città invisibili) is a novel by Italian writer Italo Calvino. It was published in Italy in 1972 by Giulio Einaudi Editore.
Description
The book explores imagination and the imaginable through the descriptions of ...
''.
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Chan, Hok-Lam. 1997. "A Recipe to Qubilai Qa'an on Governance: The Case of Chang Te-hui and Li Chih". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 7 (2). Cambridge University Press: 257–83. .
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
*
Lanchester, John, "The Invention of Money: How the heresies of two bankers became the basis of our modern economy", ''
The New Yorker
''The New Yorker'' is an American weekly magazine featuring journalism, commentary, criticism, essays, fiction, satire, cartoons, and poetry. Founded as a weekly in 1925, the magazine is published 47 times annually, with five of these issues ...
'', 5 & 12 August 2019, pp. 28–31. "One of the things that astonished
Marco Polo
Marco Polo (, , ; 8 January 1324) was a Venetian merchant, explorer and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. His travels are recorded in '' The Travels of Marco Polo'' (also known as ''Book of the Marv ...
most
n Chinawas
paper money, introduced by Kublai
hanin 1260." (p. 28.)
External links
Inflation under Kublai(
Archaeological Institute of America)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Kublai
1215 births
1294 deaths
Yuan dynasty emperors
Great Khans of the Mongol Empire
13th-century Mongol rulers
13th-century Chinese monarchs
History of China
Kerait people
Founding monarchs
Mongolian Buddhist monarchs