The Khotyn Fortress (, , , ) is a fortification complex located on the right bank of the
Dniester
The Dniester ( ) is a transboundary river in Eastern Europe. It runs first through Ukraine and then through Moldova (from which it more or less separates the breakaway territory of Transnistria), finally discharging into the Black Sea on Uk ...
River in
Khotyn
Khotyn (, ; , ; see #Name, other names) is a List of cities in Ukraine, city in Dnistrovskyi Raion, Chernivtsi Oblast of western Ukraine, located south-west of Kamianets-Podilskyi. It hosts the administration of Khotyn urban hromada, one of th ...
,
Chernivtsi Oblast
Chernivtsi Oblast (), also referred to as Chernivechchyna (), is an oblast (province) in western Ukraine, consisting of the northern parts of the historical regions of Bukovina and Bessarabia. It has an international border with Romania and Moldo ...
(
province
A province is an administrative division within a country or sovereign state, state. The term derives from the ancient Roman , which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire, Roman Empire's territorial possessions ou ...
) of southwestern
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...
. It lies within the historical region of northern
Bessarabia
Bessarabia () is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. About two thirds of Bessarabia lies within modern-day Moldova, with the Budjak region covering the southern coa ...
, a Romanian territory
occupied in 1940 by the Soviet Union following the
Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, officially the Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and also known as the Hitler–Stalin Pact and the Nazi–Soviet Pact, was a non-aggression pact between Nazi Ge ...
. The fortress is located near another famous defensive structure, the
Kamianets-Podilskyi Castle
The Kamianets-Podilskyi Castle (; ; ) is a former Ruthenian-Lithuanian castle and a later three-part Polish fortress located in the historic city of Kamianets-Podilskyi, Ukraine, in the historic region of Podilia in the western part of the count ...
. Construction of the current stone Khotyn Fortress began in the late XIV century, when these lands had already become part of
Moldavia
Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
. The fortress underwent significant improvements in the 1380s and in the 1460s under the Romanian princes
Alexander the Good and
Stephen the Great
Stephen III, better known as Stephen the Great (; ; died 2 July 1504), was List of rulers of Moldavia, Voivode (or Prince) of Moldavia from 1457 to 1504. He was the son of and co-ruler with Bogdan II of Moldavia, Bogdan II, who was murdered in ...
.
History
As a Rus' stronghold
The Khotyn Fortress' beginning goes back to the Khotyn Fort, which was built in the 10th century by
Prince
A prince is a male ruler (ranked below a king, grand prince, and grand duke) or a male member of a monarch's or former monarch's family. ''Prince'' is also a title of nobility (often highest), often hereditary, in some European states. The ...
Vladimir the Great
Vladimir I Sviatoslavich or Volodymyr I Sviatoslavych (; Christian name: ''Basil''; 15 July 1015), given the epithet "the Great", was Prince of Novgorod from 970 and Grand Prince of Kiev from 978 until his death in 1015. The Eastern Orthodox ...
as one of the border fortifications of southwestern
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus', also known as Kyivan Rus,.
* was the first East Slavs, East Slavic state and later an amalgam of principalities in Eastern Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century.John Channon & Robert Hudson, ''Penguin Historical At ...
, after he added the land of present-day
Bukovina
Bukovina or ; ; ; ; , ; see also other languages. is a historical region at the crossroads of Central and Eastern Europe. It is located on the northern slopes of the central Eastern Carpathians and the adjoining plains, today divided betwe ...
to his control. The fort, which eventually was rebuilt a fortress, was located on important commerce routes, which connected
Scandinavia
Scandinavia is a subregion#Europe, subregion of northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. ''Scandinavia'' most commonly refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. It can sometimes also ...
and
Kyiv
Kyiv, also Kiev, is the capital and most populous List of cities in Ukraine, city of Ukraine. Located in the north-central part of the country, it straddles both sides of the Dnieper, Dnieper River. As of 1 January 2022, its population was 2, ...
with the Ponyzia (lowlands),
Podolia
Podolia or Podillia is a historic region in Eastern Europe located in the west-central and southwestern parts of Ukraine and northeastern Moldova (i.e. northern Transnistria).
Podolia is bordered by the Dniester River and Boh River. It features ...
, Genoese and Greek colonies on the
Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal sea, marginal Mediterranean sea (oceanography), mediterranean sea lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bound ...
, through
Moldavia
Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
and
Wallachia
Wallachia or Walachia (; ; : , : ) is a historical and geographical region of modern-day Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections, Munteni ...
, on the famous "
trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks".
The fortification was located on a rocky territory, created by the tall right-hand shore of the Dniester and the valley. At first it was just a huge mound of dirt with wooden walls and protective equipment. It was designed to protect the settlement of Khotyn across the river. The first stone construction was rather small. It was located exactly where the northern tower is located today. Throughout the centuries, this fortress underwent many reconstructions and expansions, and was damaged by new conquerors, who would later rebuild it.
By the late 11th century, Khotyn Fortress was under the control of the
Principality of Terebovlia. In the 1140s, the fortress was incorporated into the
Principality of Halych
The Principality of Galicia (; ), also known as Principality of Halych or Principality of Halychian Rus, was a medieval East Slavs, East Slavic principality, and one of the main regional states within the political scope of Kievan Rus', establi ...
, and by 1199 became part of the
Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia
The Principality or, from 1253, Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, also known as the Kingdom of Ruthenia, Kingdom of Rus', or Kingdom of Russia, also Halych–Volhynian Kingdom was a medieval state in Eastern Europe which existed from 1199 to 1349. I ...
.
Reconstruction and fortification
Between 1250 and 1264, Prince
Danylo of Halych and his son
Lev rebuilt the fortress. They fortified the structure by adding a half-meter (20 in) stone wall and a wide moat around its perimeter. Additionally, new military buildings were constructed in the northern part of the fortress. In the latter half of the 13th century, the fortress was rebuilt by the
Genoese.
In the 1340s, the fortress was captured by Moldavian prince
Dragoș, a vassal of the
Kingdom of Hungary
The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from 1000 to 1946 and was a key part of the Habsburg monarchy from 1526-1918. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the Coro ...
. After 1375, it was incorporated into the
Principality of Moldavia
Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially independent and later auto ...
. Under the rule of
Alexander the Good and later
Stephen the Great of Moldavia, the fortress underwent significant renovations, transforming it into its present form. The old fortress was reconstructed using stone and extensively expanded. New walls were erected, measuring wide and tall. Three towers were added, and the courtyard was raised by . The courtyard itself was divided into sections for princes and soldiers, with deep basements serving as barracks. This reconstruction established the fortress's current structure. Throughout the 14th to 16th centuries, the fortress served as a
residence for Moldavian princes.
In 1476, the garrison successfully held the Fortress against the
Turkish army
The Turkish Land Forces () is the main branch of the Turkish Armed Forces responsible for Army, land-based military operations. The army was formed on November 8, 1920, after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Significant campaigns since the ...
of Sultan
Mehmed II
Mehmed II (; , ; 30 March 14323 May 1481), commonly known as Mehmed the Conqueror (; ), was twice the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from August 1444 to September 1446 and then later from February 1451 to May 1481.
In Mehmed II's first reign, ...
. By the end of the 16th century
Moldavia
Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
became a tributary principality of the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
. Thereafter, a
janissary
A janissary (, , ) was a member of the elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultan's household troops. They were the first modern standing army, and perhaps the first infantry force in the world to be equipped with firearms, adopted dur ...
unit was stationed inside the fortress, alongside the Moldavian troops. During this time the
Turks expanded and fortified the Fortress.
In 1538, the Khotyn Fortress was captured by
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, also referred to as Poland–Lithuania or the First Polish Republic (), was a federation, federative real union between the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ...
forces under the leadership of
Great Crown Hetman Jan Tarnowski. The Commonwealth troops
undermined the fortress walls, destroying three towers and a section of the western wall. Following its capture, the fortress underwent renovations from 1540 to 1544. In 1563,
Dmytro Vyshnevetsky and five hundred
Zaporozhian Cossacks
The Zaporozhian Cossacks (in Latin ''Cossacorum Zaporoviensis''), also known as the Zaporozhian Cossack Army or the Zaporozhian Host (), were Cossacks who lived beyond (that is, downstream from) the Dnieper Rapids. Along with Registered Cossa ...
successfully captured the fortress, holding it for a period.
17th to 19th centuries
In 1600,
Simion Movilă, the former ruler of both
Moldavia
Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
and
Wallachia
Wallachia or Walachia (; ; : , : ) is a historical and geographical region of modern-day Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections, Munteni ...
, along with his brother
Ieremia Movilă, Prince of Moldavia, sought refuge in the Fortress. With Polish support, they engaged in a dynastic struggle against the forces of Moldavia and Wallachia, led by
Michael the Brave
Michael the Brave ( or ; 1558 – 9 August 1601), born as Mihai Pătrașcu, was the Prince of Wallachia (as Michael II, 1593–1601), Prince of Moldavia (1600) and ''de facto'' ruler of Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711), Transylvani ...
, who was attempting to capture the fortress.
In 1611, Voivode Stefan Tomsa II ruled Moldova with the support of the Ottoman Empire, maintaining control of Khotyn Fortress until his deposition in 1615.
In 1615, the
Polish army
The Land Forces () are the Army, land forces of the Polish Armed Forces. They currently contain some 110,000 active personnel and form many components of the European Union and NATO deployments around the world. Poland's recorded military histor ...
recaptured Khotyn,
only to return it to the Ottoman Empire in 1617. The city was once more seized by the Polish army in 1620.
From September to October 1621, the
Commonwealth army, led by
hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz
Jan Karol Chodkiewicz (; 1561 – 24 September 1621) was a Polish–Lithuanian identity, Polish–Lithuanian military commander of the Grand Ducal Lithuanian Army, who was from 1601 Field Hetman of Lithuania, and from 1605 Grand Hetman of Lit ...
and
Petro Sahaidachny, successfully defended against the army of the Turkish sultan,
Osman II
Osman II ( ''‘Osmān-i sānī''; ; 3 November 1604 – 20 May 1622), also known as Osman the Young (), was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 26 February 1618 until his regicide on 20 May 1622.
Early life
Osman II was born at Topkapı Pa ...
. The Commonwealth forces, numbering around 50,000 troops, held off the estimated 100,000-strong Ottoman army in the
Battle of Khotyn. On October 8, 1621, the Khotyn Peace Treaty was signed, halting the Ottoman advance into the Commonwealth and confirming the Commonwealth–Ottoman border on the Dniester river (the border of the Principality of Moldavia). As a result, Khotyn was returned to Moldavia as a vassal of Ottoman empire.
Hetman
Bohdan Khmelnytsky
Zynoviy Bohdan Mykhailovych Khmelnytsky of the Abdank coat of arms (Ruthenian language, Ruthenian: Ѕѣнові Богданъ Хмелнiцкiи; modern , Polish language, Polish: ; 15956 August 1657) was a Ruthenian nobility, Ruthenian noble ...
initially allied with the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia before occupying Khotyn Fortress for a period in the spring of 1650. During the Zhvanets Battle in 1653, fought on the left bank of Dniester, a garrison of Turks from Khotyn fought alongside Moldavian forces. In November 1673, the Khotyn Fortress was lost by the Turks.
Jan Sobieski would begin to occupy Khotyn with a Polish–Cossack army. Sobieski vividly described the battle:
More than 60 guns were thundering non-stop, the sky was in flames and smothered in smoke, the earth was quaking, the walls were groaning, the rocks were splitting into pieces. That which my eyes captured throughout the day was indescribable. It is impossible to convey the persistence and courage, or rather despair, with which both parties were fighting.
In early August 1674, the fortress was captured back by Turkish forces. Jan Sobieski, then the Polish king, recaptured it in 1684.
With the 1699
Karlowitz Peace Treaty, the fortress was transferred from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth to
Moldavia
Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
. In 1711, Khotyn was again taken over by the
Turks. The Turks then fortified Khotyn following a six-year (1712–18) reconstruction and it became the foremost stronghold of the Ottoman defence in Eastern Europe.
In 1739, after the Russians defeated the Turks in the
Battle of Stavuchany (today Stavceane) in which Ukrainians,
Russians
Russians ( ) are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group native to Eastern Europe. Their mother tongue is Russian language, Russian, the most spoken Slavic languages, Slavic language. The majority of Russians adhere to Eastern Orthodox Church ...
,
Georgians
Georgians, or Kartvelians (; ka, ქართველები, tr, ), are a nation and Peoples of the Caucasus, Caucasian ethnic group native to present-day Georgia (country), Georgia and surrounding areas historically associated with the Ge ...
, and
Moldavians fought, they laid siege on the Khotyn fortress. The commander of the Turkish forces,
Iliaş Colceag surrendered the fortress to the Russian commander
Burkhard Christoph von Münnich
Burkhard Christoph Graf von Münnich (; – ) was a German-born army officer who became a field marshal and political figure in the Russian Empire.
He carried out major reforms in the Russian Army and founded several elite military forma ...
.
In 1769 and 1788, the Russians again successfully stormed the fortress, but every time it was given back according to peace treaties. Only after the
Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812) did Khotyn become a permanent part of Russia and a district center in
Bessarabia
Bessarabia () is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. About two thirds of Bessarabia lies within modern-day Moldova, with the Budjak region covering the southern coa ...
. However, when the Turks were retreating, they almost completely ruined the fortress.
In 1826, the city of Khotyn was given a coat of arms.
In 1832, the new church of
St. Alexander Nevsky was built on the territory inside of the fortress.
In 1856, the government ended the status of the Khotyn Fortress as a military entity.
20th and 21st centuries
The
First World War
World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
and the
Russian Civil War
The Russian Civil War () was a multi-party civil war in the former Russian Empire sparked by the 1917 overthrowing of the Russian Provisional Government in the October Revolution, as many factions vied to determine Russia's political future. I ...
took a heavy toll on the people of Khotyn. In January 1918, the
Moldovan Democratic Republic proclaimed its independence and in March, united with
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
.
In January 1919, an
anti-Romanian uprising took place orchestrated by the bolsheviks from
Russia
Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...
. The Khotyn Directory gained authority in more than one hundred villages in the area and Y. I. Voloshenko-Mardaryev (Й. І. Волошенко-Мардар'єв) was in charge. The uprising lasted only ten days and on February 1, the Romanians got into Khotyn. Khotyn was internationally recognized as part of Romania after the
Paris Peace Conference, remaining a part of Romania for 22 years, being the administrative center of the
Hotin County.
On 28 of June 1940,
Soviet Union occupied Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina and at the orders of Moscow, the northern part of Bessarabia, including the town of Khotyn was incorporated into the
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, abbreviated as the Ukrainian SSR, UkrSSR, and also known as Soviet Ukraine or just Ukraine, was one of the Republics of the Soviet Union, constituent republics of the Soviet Union from 1922 until 1991. ...
. On July 6, 1941, Khotyn was reconquered by the Nazi
German-
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
n armies, returning to Romania as part of the
Bukovina Governorate. In the summer of 1944, the
Red Army
The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army, often shortened to the Red Army, was the army and air force of the Russian Soviet Republic and, from 1922, the Soviet Union. The army was established in January 1918 by a decree of the Council of People ...
reoccupied the region.
In September 1991, during the 370th anniversary of the
Battle of Khotyn, a
monument
A monument is a type of structure that was explicitly created to commemorate a person or event, or which has become relevant to a social group as a part of their remembrance of historic times or cultural heritage, due to its artistic, historical ...
was erected in honor of
Ukrainian Hetman Petro Sahaidachnyi, designed by
sculptor
Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. Sculpture is the three-dimensional art work which is physically presented in the dimensions of height, width and depth. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable sc ...
I. Hamal' (І. Гамаль).
Today, Khotyn is one of the biggest cities and an important
industrial,
tourist
Tourism is travel for pleasure, and the commercial activity of providing and supporting such travel. UN Tourism defines tourism more generally, in terms which go "beyond the common perception of tourism as being limited to holiday activity on ...
, and
cultural
Culture ( ) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and Social norm, norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, Social norm, customs, capabilities, Attitude (psychology), attitudes ...
center of the
Chernivtsi Oblast
Chernivtsi Oblast (), also referred to as Chernivechchyna (), is an oblast (province) in western Ukraine, consisting of the northern parts of the historical regions of Bukovina and Bessarabia. It has an international border with Romania and Moldo ...
. Taking into consideration the rich historical traditions of the city, the Khotyn Fortress State Historical and Architectural Reserve was created by the
Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine
The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine (), commonly referred to as the Government of Ukraine (), is the highest body of state Executive (government), executive power in Ukraine. As the Cabinet of Ministers of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republi ...
in 2000. In September 2002, the ancient city celebrated its 1,000-year anniversary.
Khotyn Fortress in films
Many historical adventure movies were filmed in the Khotyn fortress: ''
The Viper'' (1965), ''
Zakhar Berkut'' (1971), ''
The Arrows of Robin Hood'' (1975), ''
Old Fortress'' (1976), ''
D'Artagnan and Three Musketeers
''D'Artagnan and Three Musketeers'' (, ''D'Artanyan i tri mushketyora'') is a three-part swashbuckler musical miniseries produced in the Soviet Union and first aired in 1978. It is based on the 1844 novel ''The Three Musketeers'' by Alexandre Dum ...
'' (1978), ''
The Ballad of the Valiant Knight Ivanhoe'' (1983), ''
The Black Arrow'' (1985)
and ''
Taras Bulba'' (2009). In these films, the fortress usually represented various
French and
English castle
A castle is a type of fortification, fortified structure built during the Middle Ages predominantly by the nobility or royalty and by Military order (monastic society), military orders. Scholars usually consider a ''castle'' to be the private ...
s, including
La Rochelle
La Rochelle (, , ; Poitevin-Saintongeais: ''La Rochéle'') is a city on the west coast of France and a seaport on the Bay of Biscay, a part of the Atlantic Ocean. It is the capital of the Charente-Maritime Departments of France, department. Wi ...
.
Legends
There are also many
legend
A legend is a genre of folklore that consists of a narrative featuring human actions, believed or perceived to have taken place in human history. Narratives in this genre may demonstrate human values, and possess certain qualities that give the ...
s about the fortress, created over the hundreds of years of its existence. Some popular legends involve the origins of the large dark spot on the side of the wall of the fortress. One legend says that the spot was created by the tears of the Khotyn rebels against the
Ottoman Turks
The Ottoman Turks () were a Turkic peoples, Turkic ethnic group in Anatolia. Originally from Central Asia, they migrated to Anatolia in the 13th century and founded the Ottoman Empire, in which they remained socio-politically dominant for the e ...
that were killed inside the fortress. Another legend has it that the spot was created from the tears of a girl named Oksana, whom the Turks buried alive in the walls of the fort.
Khotyn Fortress
— Newspaper article from ''Shepetivskyi Vistnyk'' , Accessed 16 July 2008.
Khotyn in art
File:Battle of Khotyn 1673.PNG, Battle of Khotyn, 1673
File:Józef Brandt, Bitwa pod Chocimiem.jpg, Battle of Khotyn, 1673
File:John III Sobieski in battle of Khotyn 1673.PNG, John III Sobieski in battle of Khotyn, 1673
File:Battle of Chocim 1621.PNG, Battle of Chocim, 1621. Joseph Brandt.
File:Rokowania pod Chocimiem (438047) (cropped).jpg, Chocim treaty, 1621. Franciszek Smuglewicz, 1785.
File:Chodkiewicz wife2.JPG, Farewell before the Khotyn battle, 1621
File:Chodkiewicz death.JPG, Chodkiewicz death
File:Rubens Prince Władysław Vasa.jpg, Prince Władysław Vasa (1624)
File:Anonymous Stanisław Lubomirski in the camp.jpg, Stanisław Lubomirski in the camp (1647)
File:Apoteoza Zygmunta III Wazy (65208861).jpg, Apoteoza Zygmunta III after the Khotyn battle
References
External links
— Moldata.com
Video "Khotyn Fortress, aerial survey (4k Ultra HD)"
Khotyn Fortress screened from a drone
{{Castles in Ukraine
10th-century fortifications
Buildings and structures completed in the 14th century
Castles in Ukraine
Castles in Moldavia
Landmarks in Chernivtsi Oblast
Historic sites in Ukraine
Buildings and structures in Chernivtsi Oblast
Tourist attractions in Chernivtsi Oblast
Forts in Ukraine
History of Khotyn
Historic reserves in Ukraine