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John Peckham (c. 1230 – 8 December 1292) was Archbishop of Canterbury in the years 1279–1292. He was a native of Sussex who was educated at
Lewes Priory Lewes Priory is a part-demolished medieval Cluniac priory in Lewes, East Sussex in the United Kingdom. The ruins have been designated a Grade I listed building. History The Priory of St Pancras was the first Cluniac house in England and h ...
and became a
Friar Minor , image = FrancescoCoA PioM.svg , image_size = 200px , caption = A cross, Christ's arm and Saint Francis's arm, a universal symbol of the Franciscans , abbreviation = OFM , predecessor = , ...
about 1250. He studied at the
University of Paris , image_name = Coat of arms of the University of Paris.svg , image_size = 150px , caption = Coat of Arms , latin_name = Universitas magistrorum et scholarium Parisiensis , motto = ''Hic et ubique terrarum'' (Latin) , mottoeng = Here and a ...
under
Bonaventure Bonaventure ( ; it, Bonaventura ; la, Bonaventura de Balneoregio; 1221 – 15 July 1274), born Giovanni di Fidanza, was an Italian Catholic Franciscan, bishop, cardinal, scholastic theologian and philosopher. The seventh Minister G ...
, where he would later teach theology. From his teaching, he came into conflict with
Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas, OP (; it, Tommaso d'Aquino, lit=Thomas of Aquino; 1225 – 7 March 1274) was an Italian Dominican friar and priest who was an influential philosopher, theologian and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism; he is known wit ...
, with whom he debated on two occasions. Known as a conservative theologian, he opposed Aquinas' views on the nature of the soul. Peckham also studied optics and astronomy, and his studies in those subjects were particularly influenced by Roger Bacon and Alhazen. In around 1270, Peckham returned to England, where he taught at the
University of Oxford , mottoeng = The Lord is my light , established = , endowment = £6.1 billion (including colleges) (2019) , budget = £2.145 billion (2019–20) , chancellor ...
, and was elected the provincial minister of England (Minoriten) in 1275. After a brief stint in Rome, he was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 1279. His time as archbishop was marked by efforts to improve discipline in the clergy as well as reorganize the estates of his see. Pluralism, or holding more than one clerical benefice, was one of the abuses that Peckham combatted. He served King
Edward I of England Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1272 to 1307. Concurrently, he ruled the duchies of Aquitaine and Gascony as a vas ...
in Wales, where he formed a low opinion of the Welsh people and laws. Before and during his time as archbishop, he wrote a number of works on optics, philosophy, and theology, as well as writing hymns. Numerous manuscripts of his works survive. On his death, his body was buried in Canterbury Cathedral, but his heart was given to the Franciscans for burial.


Early life

Peckham came from a humble family, possibly from
Patcham Patcham () is an area of the city of Brighton & Hove, about north of the city centre. It is bounded by the A27 (Brighton bypass) to the north, Hollingbury to the east and southeast, Withdean to the south and the Brighton Main Line to the west. ...
in East Sussex.Moorman ''Church Life'' p. 159 He was born about 1230 and was educated at Lewes Priory.Thompson "Pecham, John" ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' About 1250, he joined the Franciscan order at
Oxford Oxford () is a city in England. It is the county town and only city of Oxfordshire. In 2020, its population was estimated at 151,584. It is north-west of London, south-east of Birmingham and north-east of Bristol. The city is home to the ...
. He then went to the
University of Paris , image_name = Coat of arms of the University of Paris.svg , image_size = 150px , caption = Coat of Arms , latin_name = Universitas magistrorum et scholarium Parisiensis , motto = ''Hic et ubique terrarum'' (Latin) , mottoeng = Here and a ...
, where he studied under
Bonaventure Bonaventure ( ; it, Bonaventura ; la, Bonaventura de Balneoregio; 1221 – 15 July 1274), born Giovanni di Fidanza, was an Italian Catholic Franciscan, bishop, cardinal, scholastic theologian and philosopher. The seventh Minister G ...
and became
regent master Regent master (''Magister regens'') was a title conferred in the medieval universities upon a student who had acquired a master's degree. The degree meant simply the right to teach, the ''Licentia docendi'', a right which could be granted, in the ...
, or official lecturer, in
theology Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
.Leff ''Paris and Oxford Universities'' p. 183 While at Paris, he wrote a ''Commentary on Lamentations'', which sets out two possible sermons.Douie "Archbishops Pecham's Sermons and Collations" ''Studies in Medieval History'' p. 269 For years Peckham taught at Paris, where he was in contact with many of the leading scholars of his time, including Thomas Aquinas.Lawrence "Thirteenth Century" ''English Church and the Papacy'' pp. 146–147 He famously debated Aquinas on at least two occasions during 1269 and 1270, during which Peckham defended the conservative theological position, and Thomas put forth his views on the soul.Knowles ''Evolution of Medieval Thought'' p. 294 The Thomist doctrine of the unity of form was condemned after these debates.Leff ''Paris and Oxford Universities'' p. 228 His theological works later were used by his pupil
Roger Marston Roger Marston (Rogerus de Marston) (died c. 1303) was an English Franciscan scholastic philosopher and theologian. He studied under John Pecham in Paris, in the years around 1270, and probably also at Oxford a few years later, during the time he w ...
who in turn inspired
Duns Scotus John Duns Scotus ( – 8 November 1308), commonly called Duns Scotus ( ; ; "Duns the Scot"), was a Scottish Catholic priest and Franciscan friar, university professor, philosopher, and theologian. He is one of the four most important ...
. Peckham also studied other fields, however; and was guided by
Robert Grosseteste Robert Grosseteste, ', ', or ') or the gallicised Robert Grosstête ( ; la, Robertus Grossetesta or '). Also known as Robert of Lincoln ( la, Robertus Lincolniensis, ', &c.) or Rupert of Lincoln ( la, Rubertus Lincolniensis, &c.). ( ; la, Rob ...
and Roger Bacon's views on the value of experimental science.Leff ''Paris and Oxford Universities'' p. 288 Where Peckham met Bacon is not known, but it would have been at either Paris or Oxford. Bacon's influence can be seen in Peckham's works on
optics Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultrav ...
(the ''Perspectiva communis'') and astronomy. In the field of optics, Peckham was influenced by
Euclid Euclid (; grc-gre, Εὐκλείδης; BC) was an ancient Greek mathematician active as a geometer and logician. Considered the "father of geometry", he is chiefly known for the '' Elements'' treatise, which established the foundations of ...
, Pseudo-Euclid,
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ph ...
,
Augustine Augustine of Hippo ( , ; la, Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as Saint Augustine, was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North A ...
,
al-Kindi Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ al-Kindī (; ar, أبو يوسف يعقوب بن إسحاق الصبّاح الكندي; la, Alkindus; c. 801–873 AD) was an Arab Muslim philosopher, polymath, mathematician, physician ...
, Avicenna, Alhazen, Grosseteste, and Roger Bacon. Of these, historian David Lindberg argues, " Alhazen is by far the most significant, and Peckham could speak of his intention to 'follow in the footsteps' of the author".


Return to England


Reorganization of the archdiocese

About 1270, he returned to England to teach at Oxford, and was elected provincial minister of the Franciscans in England in 1275.Greenway "Canterbury: Archbishops" ''Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066-1300: Volume 2'': Monastic Cathedrals (Northern and Southern Provinces) He did not long remain in that post, being summoned to Rome as ''lector sacri palatii,'' or theological lecturer at the papal palace.Knowles ''Evolution of Medieval Thought'' p. 169 It is likely that he composed his ''Expositio super Regulam Fratrum Minorum'', a work that included information on preaching, a subject that Peckham felt was of great importance. In 1279 he was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury by
Pope Nicholas III Pope Nicholas III ( la, Nicolaus III; c. 1225 – 22 August 1280), born Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 25 November 1277 to his death on 22 August 1280. He was a Roman nobleman who ...
who had prohibited the election of
Robert Burnell Robert Burnell (sometimes spelled Robert Burnel;Harding ''England in the Thirteenth Century'' p. 159 c. 1239 – 25 October 1292) was an English bishop who served as Lord Chancellor of England from 1274 to 1292. A native of Shropshire, h ...
, Edward I's preferred candidate. He was provided (appointed by the pope to the see) on 25 January 1279 and consecrated on 19 February 1279.Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 233 Peckham laid stress on discipline, which often resulted in conflict with his clergy. His first episcopal act was calling a council at
Reading Reading is the process of taking in the sense or meaning of letters, symbols, etc., especially by sight or touch. For educators and researchers, reading is a multifaceted process involving such areas as word recognition, orthography (spelling ...
in July 1279 to implement ecclesiastical reform, but Peckham's specifying that a copy of '' Magna Carta'' should be hung in all
cathedral A cathedral is a church that contains the '' cathedra'' () of a bishop, thus serving as the central church of a diocese, conference, or episcopate. Churches with the function of "cathedral" are usually specific to those Christian denominatio ...
and
collegiate church In Christianity, a collegiate church is a church where the daily office of worship is maintained by a college of canons: a non-monastic or "secular" community of clergy, organised as a self-governing corporate body, which may be presided over by ...
es offended the king as an unnecessary intrusion into political affairs. Another ruling was on non-residence of clergy in their livings. The only exception Peckham was prepared to make on non-residence was if the clerk needed to go abroad to study.Prestwich ''Edward I'' p. 250 At the
Parliament In modern politics, and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: representing the electorate, making laws, and overseeing the government via hearings and inquiries. Th ...
of Winchester in 1279, the archbishop compromised and Parliament invalidated any regulation of the council dealing with royal policies or power. The copies of Magna Carta were taken down.Prestwich ''Edward I'' p. 251 One reason the archbishop may have backed down was that he was in debt to the Italian banking family of the
Riccardi Riccardi is an Italian surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Alessio Riccardi (born 2001), Italian footballer * Andrea Riccardi (born 1950), Italian church leader * Arturo Riccardi (1878–1966), Italian Navy admiral * Davide Ricca ...
, who also were bankers to Edward and the pope, and Peckham was under threat of
excommunication Excommunication is an institutional act of religious censure used to end or at least regulate the communion of a member of a congregation with other members of the religious institution who are in normal communion with each other. The purpose ...
from the pope unless he repaid the loans.Prestwich ''Edward I'' p. 252 However, Peckham worked hard to reorganise the estates of the diocese, and held an inquiry in 1283 through 1285 into the revenues of the see. He set up administrative structures in the manors that divided them into seven administrative groups.DeBoulay ''Lordship of Canterbury'' p. 248 Peckham, though, was almost continually in debt, and because he was a Franciscan, he had no personal property to help with his living expenses. He had inherited the diocesan debts that his predecessor had allowed to accumulate, and never managed to clear them.Moorman ''Church Life'' p. 173


Relations with the Welsh

Notwithstanding his other actions, Peckham's relations with the king were generally good, and Edward sent him on a diplomatic mission to
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (c. 1223 – 11 December 1282), sometimes written as Llywelyn ap Gruffydd, also known as Llywelyn the Last ( cy, Llywelyn Ein Llyw Olaf, lit=Llywelyn, Our Last Leader), was the native Prince of Wales ( la, Princeps Wall ...
in Wales. In 1282 he attempted to mediate between the Welsh and King Edward, but given that Edward would not budge on the main issues, it was a hopeless mission.Prestwich ''Edward I'' pp. 191–192 In the end, Peckham excommunicated some of the Welsh who were resisting Edward, not unsurprising given Peckham's views of the Welsh.Prestwich ''Edward I'' p. 200 Peckham visited the Welsh dioceses as part of his tour of all his subordinate dioceses. While there, Peckham criticised the Welsh clergy for their unchaste lives, conspicuous consumption, and heavy drinking. He also found the Welsh clergy to be uneducated, although he did order a Welsh-speaking suffragan bishop to be appointed to help with pastoral duties in the diocese of Coventry and Lichfield.Walker ''Medieval Wales'' p. 87 Peckham also criticised the Welsh people as a whole, contrasting their pastoral economy with the farming-based economy of England, and finding the Welsh to be lazy and idle.Given ''State and Society'' p. 94 As part of his diplomatic duties, Peckham wrote to Llywelyn, and in those letters the archbishop continued his criticisms of the Welsh people, this time condemning their laws as contrary to both the Old and New Testament. Peckham was particularly offended that Welsh laws sought to get parties to homicides or other crimes to settle their differences rather than the process of English law which condemned the criminal.Given ''State and Society'' p. 77 Peckham also had problems with his subordinate Thomas Bek, who was
Bishop of St David's The Bishop of St Davids is the ordinary of the Church in Wales Diocese of St Davids. The succession of bishops stretches back to Saint David who in the 6th century established his seat in what is today the city of St Davids in Pembrokeshire, ...
in Wales. Bek tried to revive a scheme to make St David's independent from Canterbury, and to elevate it to metropolitan status. This had originally been put forth by
Gerald of Wales Gerald of Wales ( la, Giraldus Cambrensis; cy, Gerallt Gymro; french: Gerald de Barri; ) was a Cambro-Norman priest and historian. As a royal clerk to the king and two archbishops, he travelled widely and wrote extensively. He studied and taugh ...
around 1200, but had been defeated by the actions of Hubert Walter, then the Archbishop of Canterbury. Bek did not manage even the four-year fight that Gerald had managed, for Peckham routed him quickly.Walker ''Medieval Wales'' pp. 77–79


Ecclesiastical matters

Skirmishes with Edward over clerical privileges, royal power, Peckham's use of excommunication, and ecclesiastical taxation continued, but in October 1286, Edward issued a
writ In common law, a writ (Anglo-Saxon ''gewrit'', Latin ''breve'') is a formal written order issued by a body with administrative or judicial jurisdiction; in modern usage, this body is generally a court. Warrants, prerogative writs, subpoenas, a ...
entitled ''Circumspecte Agatis'' which specified what types of cases the ecclesiastical courts could hear. These included moral issues, matrimonial issues, disputes about wills and testaments, the correction of sins, and slander and physical attacks on the clergy.Prestwich, ''Edward I'' p. 257 Peckham was very strict in his interpretations of canon law, and once wrote to Queen
Eleanor Eleanor () is a feminine given name, originally from an Old French adaptation of the Old Provençal name ''Aliénor''. It is the name of a number of women of royalty and nobility in western Europe during the High Middle Ages. The name was introd ...
that her use of loans from Jewish moneylenders to acquire lands was
usury Usury () is the practice of making unethical or immoral monetary loans that unfairly enrich the lender. The term may be used in a moral sense—condemning taking advantage of others' misfortunes—or in a legal sense, where an interest rate is c ...
and a
mortal sin A mortal sin ( la, peccatum mortale), in Catholic theology, is a gravely sinful act which can lead to damnation if a person does not repent of the sin before death. A sin is considered to be "mortal" when its quality is such that it leads t ...
.Prestwich, ''Edward I'' p. 125 He also felt that Welsh laws were illogical and conflicted with Biblical teachings.Prestwich, ''Edward I'' p. 186 He also mandated that the clerical
tonsure Tonsure () is the practice of cutting or shaving some or all of the hair on the scalp as a sign of religious devotion or humility. The term originates from the Latin word ' (meaning "clipping" or "shearing") and referred to a specific practice i ...
worn by the clergy should not just include the top of the head, but also have the nape and over the ears shaved, which allowed the clergy to be easily distinguished from the laity. To help with this, the archbishop also forbade the clergy from wearing secular clothing, especially military garb.Moorman, ''Church Life'' p. 149 He also forbade an effort by the
Benedictine , image = Medalla San Benito.PNG , caption = Design on the obverse side of the Saint Benedict Medal , abbreviation = OSB , formation = , motto = (English: 'Pray and Work') , foun ...
order in England to reform their monastic rule, to allow more time for study and for more education for the monks. Peckham's reason was that they were against custom, but he may also have had concerns that these reforms would have drawn recruits away from the Franciscans.Southern ''Western Society'' p. 236 At an ecclesiastical council held at Lambeth in 1281, Peckham ordered the clergy to instruct their congregations in doctrine at least four times a year. They were to explain and teach the Articles of Faith, the Ten Commandments, the Works of Mercy, the Seven Deadly Sins, the Seven Virtues and the Sacraments. This command was issued as a canon, or law, of the council, and the group is known as the Lambeth Constitutions.Swanson ''Religion and Devotion'' pp. 59–60 Even later these constitutions were collected as the Ignorantia sacerdotum.Wallace ''Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature'' p. 396 The six doctrines comprised the minimum theological knowledge the archbishop considered necessary for the laity to know.Wallace ''Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature'' p. 548 The constitutions, which were originally in Latin, were the basis and inspiration for pastoral and devotional works throughout the remainder of the Middle Ages, and were eventually translated into English in the 15th century. The crime of "plurality," or pluralism, which was the holding by one cleric of two or more benefices, was one of Peckham's targets,Moorman ''Church Life'' pp. 220–221 as were clerical absenteeism and laxity in the monastic life. His main method of fighting these was a system of "visitation" of his subordinate dioceses and religious houses, which he used with an unprecedented frequency. This often resulted in conflicts over whether or not the archbishop had jurisdiction to conduct these visits, but Peckham was also papal legate, which added a layer of complexity to the resulting disputes. The numerous legal cases that resulted from his visitation policy strengthened the archiepiscopal court at the expense of the lower courts.Lawrence "Thirteenth Century" ''English Church & the Papacy'' p. 137 Peckham also fought with
Thomas de Cantilupe Thomas de Cantilupe (25 August 1282; also spelled ''Cantelow, Cantelou, Canteloupe'', Latinised to ''de Cantilupo'') was Lord Chancellor of England and Bishop of Hereford. He was canonised in 1320 by Pope John XXII. Origins Thomas was the third ...
, Bishop of Hereford over the right to visit subordinate clergy. The quarrel involved an appeal over the jurisdiction of the archbishop, that Thomas sent to Rome in 1281, but Thomas died before the case could be decided.Lawrence "Thirteenth Century" ''English Church & the Papacy'' p. 128 Peckham also decreed that the clergy should preach to their flocks at least four times a year.Moorman ''Church Life'' pp. 80–81 Peckham often was in conflict with his subordinate bishops, mainly because of his efforts to reform them, but Peckham's own attitude and handling of his clergy contributed to the problem.Southern ''Western Society'' pp. 194–196 He once wrote to
Roger de Meyland Roger de Meyland (died 1295) was a medieval Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield, England. Roger was a cousin of King Henry III of England, although the exact relationship is unclear.Moorman ''Church Life in England'' p. 159 Roger was born c. 1215 ...
, the Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield "These things need your attention, but you have been absent so long that you seem not to care. We therefore order you, on receipt of this letter, to take up residence in your diocese, so that—even if you are not competent to redress spiritual evils—you may at least minister to the temporal needs of the poor."Quoted in Southern ''Western Society'' p. 194 The historian
Richard Southern Sir Richard William Southern (8 February 1912 – 6 February 2001), who published under the name R. W. Southern, was a noted English medieval historian based at the University of Oxford. Biography Southern was born in Newcastle-upon-Tyne o ...
says that Peckham's disputes with his suffragan bishops were "conducted in an atmosphere of bitterness and perpetual ill-will",Southern ''Western Society'' p. 194 which probably owed something to a "petulant strain in Peckham's character". Peckham's conflicts started because his own ideals were those of a Franciscan, but most of his clergy were concerned with more mundane and materialistic affairs. These strains between the archbishop and his subordinates were intensified by clashes over ecclesiastical and secular authority, as well as Edward's great need for income.Southern ''Western Society'' p. 211 Archbishop John Peckham was a notable anti-semite. On 19 August 1282, in a letter to Richard Gravesend, Bishop of London, he ordered the Bishop to compel the Jews of London, using every instrument of ecclesiastical censure, to destroy all their synagogues except one within a brief time period to be determined by the Bishop. In a second letter he congratulates the Bishop because the ''Judaica perfidia'' is being overcome by the bishop's attention and vigilance.


Death and legacy

A number of manuscripts of Peckham's works on philosophy and
biblical commentary Exegesis ( ; from the Greek , from , "to lead out") is a critical explanation or interpretation of a text. The term is traditionally applied to the interpretation of Biblical works. In modern usage, exegesis can involve critical interpretations ...
remain extant. Queen Eleanor persuaded him to write for her a scholarly work in French, which was later described as "unfortunately rather a dull and uninspired little treatise."Prestwich ''Edward I'' p. 123 His poem ''Philomena'' is considered one of the finest poems written in its time.Wallace ''Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature'' p. 362 Peckham died on 8 December 1292 at
Mortlake Mortlake is a suburban district of the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames on the south bank of the River Thames between Kew and Barnes. Historically it was part of Surrey and until 1965 was in the Municipal Borough of Barnes. For many cen ...
and was buried in the north transept, or the Martyrdom, of Canterbury Cathedral. His heart, however, was buried with the Franciscans under the high altar of their London church,
Greyfriars, London In London, the Greyfriars was a Conventual Franciscan friary that existed from 1225 to 1538 on a site at the North-West of the City of London by Newgate in the parish of St Nicholas in the Shambles. It was the second Franciscan religious ...
.Burton ''Monastic and Religious Orders'' p. 120 His tomb still survives. He founded a college at Wingham, Kent in 1286, probably a college of canons serving a church.DeBoulay ''Lordship of Canterbury'' p. 127


Works

A number of his works have survived, and some have appeared in print in various times: * * * ''Perspectiva communis'' * ''Collectarium Bibliae'' * ''Registrum epistolarum''Mullins ''Texts and Calendars I'' section 6.77 * ''Tractatus de paupertate''Mullins ''Texts and Calendars I'' section 13.2 * ''Divinarum Sententiarum Librorum Biblie''Douie "Archbishops Pecham's Sermons and Collations" ''Studies in Medieval History'' p. 270 * ''Summa de esse et essentia'' * ''Quaestiones disputatae'' * ''Quodlibeta'' * ''Tractatus contra Kilwardby'' * ''Expositio super Regulam Fratrum Minorum'' * ''Tractatus de anima'' * ''Tractatus de sphaera'' * ''Canticum pauperis'' * ''De aeternitate mundi''Potter, (ed.) ''Questions Concerning the Eternity of the World'' * ''Defensio fratrum mendicantium'' Peckham is the earliest Archbishop of Canterbury to have his registers, the principal records of archiepiscopal administration, held at Lambeth Palace Library."Holdings of Lambeth Palace Library" ''Holdings of the Lambeth Palace Library''


See also

*
List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics A ''list'' is any set of items in a row. List or lists may also refer to: People * List (surname) Organizations * List College, an undergraduate division of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America * SC Germania List, German rugby unio ...


Notes


Citations


References

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

* * * * *


External links

* Peckham's (1580
''Perspectivae communis''
– digital facsimile from the
Linda Hall Library The Linda Hall Library is a privately endowed American library of science, engineering and technology located in Kansas City, Missouri, sitting "majestically on a urban arboretum." It is the "largest independently funded public library of scien ...
{{DEFAULTSORT:Peckham, John 13th-century births 1292 deaths English Friars Minor Archbishops of Canterbury 13th-century English Roman Catholic archbishops 13th-century Latin writers Catholic clergy scientists Burials at Canterbury Cathedral 13th-century astronomers Medieval English astronomers 13th-century English Roman Catholic theologians