HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Ng'ombe Ilede is an
archaeological site An archaeological site is a place (or group of physical sites) in which evidence of past activity is preserved (either prehistoric or recorded history, historic or contemporary), and which has been, or may be, investigated using the discipline ...
located on a hill near the
confluence In geography, a confluence (also ''conflux'') occurs where two or more watercourses join to form a single channel (geography), channel. A confluence can occur in several configurations: at the point where a tributary joins a larger river (main ...
of the
Zambezi The Zambezi (also spelled Zambeze and Zambesi) is the fourth-longest river in Africa, the longest east-flowing river in Africa and the largest flowing into the Indian Ocean from Africa. Its drainage basin covers , slightly less than half of t ...
and Lusitu rivers, near the town of Siavonga, in Zambia. Ing'ombe Ilede, meaning "a sleeping cow", received its name from a local
baobab ''Adansonia'' is a genus of medium-to-large deciduous trees known as baobabs ( or ). The eight species of ''Adansonia'' are native to Africa, Australia, and Madagascar but have also been introduced to other regions of the world, including Barb ...
tree that is partially lying on the ground and resembles a sleeping cow from a distance. The site is thought to have been a major commercial site around the 16th century whose chief item of trade was salt. Ng'ombe Ilede received various goods from the hinterland of south-central Africa, such as,
copper Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orang ...
,
slaves Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
,
gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
and
ivory Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and Tooth, teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mamm ...
. These items were exchanged with glass beads, cloth,
cowrie shells Cowrie or cowry () is the common name for a group of small to large sea snails in the family Cypraeidae. Cowrie shells have held cultural, economic, and ornamental significance in various cultures. The cowrie was the shell most widely used wo ...
from the Indian Ocean trade. The status of Ing'ombe Ilede as a trading center that connected different places in south-central Africa has made it a very important archaeological site in the region.


Excavation

The site was uncovered in 1960 by Northern Rhodesia government workers and excavated by the archaeologist J.H Chaplin, an inspector for the Northern Rhodesia Commission for Preservation of National and Historical Monuments and Relics. Chaplin carried out an investigation of the pit, located on the western side of the site. The pit contained archaeological items such as copper bangles, copper crosses, copper currency rods and a gold beaded necklace. This area was later named burial 1. The second discovery at the site consisted of burial 2 and 3 on the south end of the site, excavated by J.H. Chaplin and B. W. Anderson around the tank area. The burial contained iron tools that lay at the feet of the human remains. The government extended the tank area a bit further, and the extension yielded two more human remains. Further excavations were in 1962 when the Water Department decided to include another water tank on the western side of the original tank to maximize the water supply in the area around Ing'ombe Ilede. This extension led to the discovery of 30 human remains which included 22 infants. These graves contained very few goods. The pottery found in association with the graves was linked to the earlier graves found at Ing'ombe Ilede.


Burials

There were 48 + burial graves that were uncovered at Ing'ombe Ilede between the periods 1960-1962 by Chaplin and Mrs Anderson. These graves contained various grave goods. The goods ranged from ornamented objects such as glass beads, copper bangles to ceremonial goods such as the gongs and hoes, which were symbols of chieftainship and utilitarian items such as tongs, wire drawing plates, hammerheads and copper razors. These burials were found in two locations at the site, the central tank area that contained 14 burials, while the 34 graves were located on the south edge of Ing'ombe Ilede.


Dating

The earliest attempts at dating Ing'ombe Ilede placed the occupation of the site from the 7th-11th centuries. These dates came from charcoal samples obtained from a badly disturbed context excavated by Chaplin in 1960. Phillipson and Fagan reported and revised these dates after their trial excavation in 1968 near the earlier excavated rich burials, which produced additional charcoal for radiocarbon dating. The newly obtained dates suggested a domestic occupation near the burials in the 14th-15th centuries, and Phillipson and Fagan argued that this might have been a second, potentially shorter occupation of the site. They concluded that their new dates did not preclude the possibility of an earlier occupation in the later first millennium CE, followed by abandonment and then reoccupation in the 14th century. However, recent examination of the site using cloth that was obtained from burials 3 and 8 has situated them from the mid-15 to mid-17 centuries, with the most likely dates being in the 16th century. When these results are considered together with material culture comparisons to other sites in the region, McIntosh and Fagan conclude that there is strong evidence that the occupations involving major social differentiation and long-distance trade at Ing'ombe Ilede are not earlier than the late 15th century, suggesting future research should focus on Ing'ombe Ilede's role in 16th century networks.


Social Stratification

The
social status Social status is the relative level of social value a person is considered to possess. Such social value includes respect, honour, honor, assumed competence, and deference. On one hand, social scientists view status as a "reward" for group members ...
of the people of Ing'ombe llede was determined based on the contents of the burials. The burial sites with ornaments were probably for the affluent people, such as traders, yes whilst the graves without ornaments probably belonged to slaves or the less affluent. For example, some burials containing metal crafting tools such as those used for drawing and hammering copper wire were connected to metal craftsmen, who were considered of high social status.There was also evidence of hierarchy at Ing'ombe Ilede; for instance, burial 8 contained a flanged iron
gong A gongFrom Indonesian language, Indonesian and ; ; zh, c=鑼, p=luó; ; ; ; ; is a percussion instrument originating from Southeast Asia, and used widely in Southeast Asian and East Asian musical traditions. Gongs are made of metal and ...
, a traditional symbol of chieftainship that resembled those found among people of Congo DR ancestry.


Trade

Ing'ombe Iledes' central location gave it the best position as a transit point for the inland trade routes from
Great Zimbabwe Great Zimbabwe was a city in the south-eastern hills of the modern country of Zimbabwe, near Masvingo. It was settled from 1000 AD, and served as the capital of the Kingdom of Great Zimbabwe from the 13th century. It is the largest stone struc ...
,
Copperbelt The Copperbelt () is a natural region in Central Africa which sits on the border region between northern Zambia and the south eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is known for copper mining and is the second largest global reserve of copper, ...
and Katanga to the Indian Ocean coast. Items of trade brought to the inland from the Indian Ocean included: glass beads, shell beads, cowrie shells and cloth, while items that came from the Indian Ocean trade route included; ivory, slaves, salt and gold. This central position also created a similar advantage for traders coming from Katanga and
Copperbelt The Copperbelt () is a natural region in Central Africa which sits on the border region between northern Zambia and the south eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is known for copper mining and is the second largest global reserve of copper, ...
who were trading in copper in the form of copper ingots with Ingo'mbe Ilede. Ingo'mbe Ilede become a focal point where traders from various places in south-central Africa came to exchange items. For instance, it facilitated the transaction in copper from Katanga in Congo DR., Copperbelt in Zambia and Hurungwe in Zimbabwe.


Trade Goods


Glass beads

Trading in glass beads in south-central Africa has a long antiquity that goes back to as early as the 8th to 17th centuries; however, the glass beads only arrived at Ing'ombe Ilede around the mid-15th and mid-17th centuries. Chemical analysis done on the Ing'ombe Ilede beads using
laser ablation Laser ablation or photoablation (also called laser blasting) is the process of removing material from a solid (or occasionally liquid) surface by irradiating it with a laser beam. At low laser flux, the material is heated by the absorbed laser ...
inductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometry Mass spectrometry (MS) is an analytical technique that is used to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. The results are presented as a ''mass spectrum'', a plot of intensity as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio. Mass spectrometry is used ...
shows that the glass beads at Ing'ombe Ilede belong to the
Khami Khami (also written as ''Khame'', ''Kame'', or ''Kami'') is a ruined city located west of Bulawayo, in Zimbabwe. It was once the capital of the Kingdom of Butua of the Torwa dynasty. It is now a national monument and became a UNESCO World Heri ...
series from the Indian Ocean trade zone and possibly found themselves at Ing'ombe Ilede through trade. The beads found at Ing'ombe Ilede have been differentiated from other beads found in south-central Africa like
Mapungubwe The Kingdom of Mapungubwe (pronounced ) was an ancient state located at the confluence of the Shashe River, Shashe and Limpopo River, Limpopo rivers in South Africa, south of Great Zimbabwe. The capital's population was 5,000 by 1250, and the s ...
using trace elements found in the beads.
Khami Khami (also written as ''Khame'', ''Kame'', or ''Kami'') is a ruined city located west of Bulawayo, in Zimbabwe. It was once the capital of the Kingdom of Butua of the Torwa dynasty. It is now a national monument and became a UNESCO World Heri ...
beads, for example, contained high levels of Magnesium oxide . The chemical analysis has helped situate some previously undated burials at In'gombe Ilede. The following are some of the burials that contained the Khami series beads: 3,8,10,25 and 31. Some burials at Ing'ombe Ilede contained beads that were connected to northwestern Zimbabwe chemically, like burials: 1,2,4 and 10. These contained the trace element plant ash (v-Na-Al). These beads had an early date of 14th century. Other sites that situate Ing'ombe Ilede chronologically are:Mankhamba in Malawi dating to the mid-16th and early 17th and Hlamba Mlonga in east Zimbabwe, dating from the 10th to the 15th century. Another site that situates Ing'ombe Ilede chronologically is Isamu Pati, located from the Ing'ombe Ilede site. The site contained the Khami beads series which are dated to about the 13th to 14th centuries. These dates obtained from the different types of beads found at different sites in south- central Africa shows the long history of trade in glass beads in this part of Africa which spanned from the 10th to 17th centuries.


Copper Ingots

Copper Ingots were used as a medium of exchange as early has 1000CE in south- central Africa. The
ingot An ingot is a piece of relatively pure material, usually metal, that is Casting, cast into a shape suitable for further processing. In steelmaking, it is the first step among semi-finished casting products. Ingots usually require a second procedu ...
s at Ing'ombe Ilede came from various places through the inland trade routes and these were shaped in form of crosses. The copper ingots were differentiated using their shape. The shape of the copper ingots has also been a good indicator of
chronology Chronology (from Latin , from Ancient Greek , , ; and , ''wikt:-logia, -logia'') is the science of arranging events in their order of occurrence in time. Consider, for example, the use of a timeline or sequence of events. It is also "the deter ...
for Ing'ombe Ilede. For example, the copper ingots from the
Copperbelt The Copperbelt () is a natural region in Central Africa which sits on the border region between northern Zambia and the south eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is known for copper mining and is the second largest global reserve of copper, ...
were similar in shape with those that came from Katanga; both were flanged and have been dated to the
14th century The 14th century lasted from 1 January 1301 (represented by the Roman numerals MCCCI) to 31 December 1400 (MCD). It is estimated that the century witnessed the death of more than 45 million lives from political and natural disasters in both Euro ...
. On the other hand, the copper ingots from Hurungwe were dated to the
16th century The 16th century began with the Julian calendar, Julian year 1501 (represented by the Roman numerals MDI) and ended with either the Julian or the Gregorian calendar, Gregorian year 1600 (MDC), depending on the reckoning used (the Gregorian calend ...
. These copper ingots shared a similar shape with those from the
Copperbelt The Copperbelt () is a natural region in Central Africa which sits on the border region between northern Zambia and the south eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is known for copper mining and is the second largest global reserve of copper, ...
and Katanga area, which shows that trade in copper among these inland sites continued from the 14th century up to the 16th century.
Great Zimbabwe Great Zimbabwe was a city in the south-eastern hills of the modern country of Zimbabwe, near Masvingo. It was settled from 1000 AD, and served as the capital of the Kingdom of Great Zimbabwe from the 13th century. It is the largest stone struc ...
had a different form of the copper ingots - unflendged and they were dated to a much earlier date of the 13th century. Despite copper being the primary trade item in south-central trade, the people at Ing'ombe Ilede used copper to manufacture domestic ornaments, such as, the copper bracelets, found in most of the rich burials at the site. The manufacture of copper bracelets is evident in wire drawing tools and a bundle of fine wire for making copper bracelets discovered in some of the rich burials at Ing'ombe Ilede.


Textiles

The cloth at Ing'ombe Ilede consists of two types: the locally made, coarse cloth, and the finely woven imported cloth, thought to be of Indian origin. The coarse material contained some patterns neatly woven into the fabric. Spindle whorls made from broken pieces of pottery and perforated with a sharp metal object were discovered at the site to support the local production of the coarse cloth.


Ceramics

Ceramics have been a good source of chronology for most of archaeological sites excavated in Africa and the world over. Traits such decorative motifs and vessels shapes have been used to situate ceramics to specific time periods. The shape of the ceramics has also been used to indicate the function of the vessels. Ingombe Ilede contained a large number of ceramics sherds that were reconstructed into complete vessels of various sizes and shapes. These vessels were probably used for domestic purposes or as trade items. There was no evidence of the method used to manufacture pottery at the site. However, archaeologists found tools suggesting pottery production such as pebble tools used for burnishing the surfaces of the vessels before firing them. Also present at the site were
mussel Mussel () is the common name used for members of several families of bivalve molluscs, from saltwater and Freshwater bivalve, freshwater habitats. These groups have in common a shell whose outline is elongated and asymmetrical compared with other ...
s used for smoothing the walls of the pottery during the shaping stage. The clay for the pottery was probably obtained from the Lusitu River. The potters perhaps burnt the pottery in an open area owing to uneven coloring found on the surfaces of pottery. The pottery at Ing'ombe Ilede played an essential role in situating the chronology of burials at the site. The chronology of the pottery was done using decorative motifs and the shape of the vessels. These attributed acted as time markers that helped researchers to situate Ing'ombe Ilede Chronologically. For example, the ceramics from earliest levels at Ing'ombe were linked to Kangila and Sebanzi cultures.


Farming

There were several lines of evidence that were discovered at Ingombe Ilede to suggest farming. One of the lines of evidence were domesticated charred
sorghum ''Sorghum bicolor'', commonly called sorghum () and also known as great millet, broomcorn, guinea corn, durra, imphee, jowar, or milo, is a species in the Poaceae, grass genus ''Sorghum (genus), Sorghum'' cultivated for its grain. The grain i ...
and
millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most millets belong to the tribe Paniceae. Millets are important crops in the Semi-arid climate, ...
that were found at the site . Also found at the site was indirect evidence, such as a leaf impression of sorghum on a pot sherd from burial 3.Besides, some graves contained iron hoes and
axe An axe (; sometimes spelled ax in American English; American and British English spelling differences#Miscellaneous spelling differences, see spelling differences) is an implement that has been used for thousands of years to shape, split, a ...
s that pointed to farming. These were differentiated into functional tool and ceremonial tools based on the amount of wear on the surfaces. The hoes and axes used for farming were heavily worn out compared to the ceremonial tools.


Faunal Remains

There was minimal evidence present at the site to indicate the domestication of animals. Among the minimal evidence found at the site were a fragmented ox
mandible In jawed vertebrates, the mandible (from the Latin ''mandibula'', 'for chewing'), lower jaw, or jawbone is a bone that makes up the lowerand typically more mobilecomponent of the mouth (the upper jaw being known as the maxilla). The jawbone i ...
with
maxilla In vertebrates, the maxilla (: maxillae ) is the upper fixed (not fixed in Neopterygii) bone of the jaw formed from the fusion of two maxillary bones. In humans, the upper jaw includes the hard palate in the front of the mouth. The two maxil ...
and horns. The rest of the
fauna Fauna (: faunae or faunas) is all of the animal life present in a particular region or time. The corresponding terms for plants and fungi are ''flora'' and '' funga'', respectively. Flora, fauna, funga and other forms of life are collectively ...
l materials belonged to
wild animals Wildlife refers to undomesticated animals and uncultivated plant species which can exist in their natural habitat, but has come to include all organisms that grow or live wild in an area without being introduced by humans. Wildlife was also ...
, ranging from small mammals like
rat Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents. Species of rats are found throughout the order Rodentia, but stereotypical rats are found in the genus ''Rattus''. Other rat genera include '' Neotoma'' (pack rats), '' Bandicota'' (bandicoo ...
s to big mammals like
elephant Elephants are the largest living land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant ('' Loxodonta africana''), the African forest elephant (''L. cyclotis''), and the Asian elephant ('' Elephas maximus ...
s, with the latter being hunted for ivory and meat.


See also

*
History of Zambia The history of Zambia experienced many stages from colonisation to independence from Britain on 24 October 1964. Northern Rhodesia became a British sphere of influence in the present-day region of Zambia in 1888, and was officially proclaimed a Br ...


References


External links


History of Zambia
*https://appliedspectra.com/technology/la-icp-ms-html *https://www.thoughtco.com/indian-ocean-trade-routes-19551{{Dead link, date=September 2024 , bot=InternetArchiveBot , fix-attempted=yes *https://www.researchgate.net/publication+248579503 Archaeological sites in Zambia Former populated places in Zambia Archaeological sites of Eastern Africa