The culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning in
Minoan and later in
Mycenaean Greece, continuing most notably into
Classical Greece, while influencing the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Roman Republic, Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings aro ...
and its successor the
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
. Other cultures and states such as the
Frankish states, the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University ...
, the
Venetian Republic and
Bavarian and
Danish monarchies have also left their influence on modern Greek culture, but historians credit the
Greek War of Independence with revitalising Greece and giving birth to a single entity of its multi-faceted culture.
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders wi ...
is widely considered to be the cradle of
Western culture and
democracy
Democracy (From grc, δημοκρατία, dēmokratía, ''dēmos'' 'people' and ''kratos'' 'rule') is a form of government in which the people have the authority to deliberate and decide legislation (" direct democracy"), or to choose g ...
. Modern democracies owe a debt to Greek beliefs in government by the people, trial by jury, and equality under the law. The ancient Greeks pioneered in many fields that rely on systematic thought, including biology, geometry, history, philosophy, and physics. They introduced such important literary forms as epic and lyric poetry, history, tragedy, and comedy. In their pursuit of order and proportion, the Greeks created an ideal of beauty that strongly influenced
Western art.
Arts
Architecture
Ancient Greece
The first great ancient Greek civilisation were the Minoans, a
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second pri ...
Aegean civilization on
Crete
Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, ...
and other
Aegean Islands, that flourished from c. 3000 BC to c. 1450 BC and, after a late period of decline, finally ended around 1100 BC during the early
Greek Dark Ages. At the height of their power, they built architecture ranging from city houses and royal palaces. Exemplary of this construction was the palace of king
Minos, located at
Knossos, which was composed of two to three levels, had over 500 rooms and many terraces with
porticos and stairs. The interior of this palace included monumental reception halls, vast apartments for the queen and bridesmaids, baths with complete sewage and drainage systems, food deposits, shops, theatres, sport arenas, and other amenities. The walls were built of polished marble or masonry that was covered with highly-decorated
frescos
Fresco (plural ''frescos'' or ''frescoes'') is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly laid ("wet") lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the dry-powder pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the setting of the plaste ...
. Besides the palace, on the island of
Santorini, an entire Minoan city was discovered in 1967, called
Akrotiri. Later, the
Mycenaean civilization erected palatial structures at
Mycenae,
Tiryns and
Pylos.
After the
Greek Dark Ages, architecture developed into a style that, together with
Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
* Rome, the capital city of Italy
* Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lett ...
, inspired
Classical architecture
Classical architecture usually denotes architecture which is more or less consciously derived from the principles of Greek and Roman architecture of classical antiquity, or sometimes even more specifically, from the works of the Roman architect ...
and later
Neoclassical. Examples of this style were their
temples, such as the
Parthenon and
Erectheion which are both based in the
Acropolis of Athens, and theatres. Both temples and theatres used a complex mix of optical illusions and balanced ratios.
Classical Ancient Greek temples usually consist of a base with stairs at each edges (known as ''
crepidoma
Crepidoma is an architectural term for part of the structure of ancient Greek buildings. The crepidoma is the multilevel platform on which the superstructure of the building is erected. The crepidoma usually has three levels. Each level typi ...
''), a
cella (or ''naos'') with a cult statue in it,
columns, an
entablature, and two
pediments
Pediments are gables, usually of a triangular shape.
Pediments are placed above the horizontal structure of the lintel, or entablature, if supported by columns. Pediments can contain an overdoor and are usually topped by hood moulds.
A pedime ...
, one on the front side and another in the back. By the 4th century BC, Greek architects and stonemasons had developed a system of rules for all buildings known as the
orders
Order, ORDER or Orders may refer to:
* Categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood
* Heterarchy, a system of organization wherein the elements have the potential to be ranked a number of ...
: the
Doric Doric may refer to:
* Doric, of or relating to the Dorians of ancient Greece
** Doric Greek, the dialects of the Dorians
* Doric order, a style of ancient Greek architecture
* Doric mode, a synonym of Dorian mode
* Doric dialect (Scotland)
* Doric ...
, the
Ionic, and the
Corinthian. They are most easily recognised by their columns (especially by the
capitals
Capital may refer to:
Common uses
* Capital city, a municipality of primary status
** List of national capital cities
* Capital letter, an upper-case letter Economics and social sciences
* Capital (economics), the durable produced goods used fo ...
). The Doric column is stout and basic, the Ionic one is slimmer and has four
scrolls (called ''
volutes
A volute is a spiral, scroll-like ornament that forms the basis of the Ionic order, found in the capital of the Ionic column. It was later incorporated into Corinthian order and Composite column capitals. Four are normally to be found on an Ion ...
'') at the corners of the capital, and the Corinthian column is just like the Ionic one, but the capital is completely different, being decorated with
acanthus leafs and four scrolls.
Byzantine Greece
Following the relocation of the capital of the Roman Empire to
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
in 330 AD, and the fall of the
Western Roman Empire
The Western Roman Empire comprised the western provinces of the Roman Empire at any time during which they were administered by a separate independent Imperial court; in particular, this term is used in historiography to describe the period ...
some 150 years later, the architects of the Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire, built city walls, palaces, hippodromes, bridges,
aqueducts, and churches. One of the more famous type of church constructed by the Byzantines was the
basilica
In Ancient Roman architecture, a basilica is a large public building with multiple functions, typically built alongside the town's forum. The basilica was in the Latin West equivalent to a stoa in the Greek East. The building gave its nam ...
, which was very widespread and received the most development of the churches that were built in the empire. Through modifications and adaptations of local inspiration, the Byzantine style of architecture was used as the main source of inspiration for architectural styles in
Eastern Orthodox countries. For example, in Romania, the
Brâncovenesc style is highly based on Byzantine architecture, but also has individual Romanian characteristics.
As with the
Parthenon, which was built in dedication to the
Ancient Greek religion, the
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia ( 'Holy Wisdom'; ; ; ), officially the Hagia Sophia Grand Mosque ( tr, Ayasofya-i Kebir Cami-i Şerifi), is a mosque and major cultural and historical site in Istanbul, Turkey. The cathedral was originally built as a Greek Ortho ...
was considered an iconic church of
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global popula ...
. The temples of both religions differ substantially in terms of their exterior and interior aspect. In Antiquity, the exterior was the most important part of the temple, because in the interior, where the cult statue of the deity to whom the temple was built was kept, only the priest had access. The ceremonies here held outside, and what the worshipers view was the facade of the temple, consisting of columns, with an
entablature and two pediments. Meanwhile, Christian liturgies were held in the interior of the churches, the exterior usually having little to no ornamentation.
Byzantine architecture often featured marble columns,
coffered
A coffer (or coffering) in architecture is a series of sunken panels in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon in a ceiling, soffit or vault.
A series of these sunken panels was often used as decoration for a ceiling or a vault, als ...
ceilings and sumptuous decoration, including the extensive use of
mosaics with golden backgrounds. The building material used by Byzantine architects was no longer marble, which was highly appreciated and utilised by the Ancient Greeks, instead opting for mostly stone and brick while using thin
alabaster sheets for windows.
Modern Greece
After the
independence
Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the stat ...
of Greece and during the nineteenth century,
Neoclassical architecture
Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the Neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century in Italy and France. It became one of the most prominent architectural styles in the Western world. The prevailing sty ...
was heavily used for both public and private buildings. The 19th-century architecture of
Athens
Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates a ...
and other cities of the
Kingdom of Greece is mostly influenced by architects like
Theophil Hansen,
Ernst Ziller,
Panagis Kalkos
Panagis Kalkos ( el, Παναγής Κάλκος, 1818–1875) was one of the first Greek architects of the modern Greek state. Educated in Munich, he is a representative of a strict neoclassic style in architecture. He built some of the most char ...
,
Lysandros Kaftanzoglou,
Anastasios Metaxas
Anastasios Metaxas ( el, Αναστάσιος Μεταξάς; 27 February 1862 – 28 January 1937) was a Greek architect and shooter.
Biography
Metaxas was the royal architect of George I of Greece and is best known for being the architect cho ...
and
Stamatios Kleanthis. Meanwhile, churches in Greece, on the other hand, experienced a
Neo-Byzantine revival.
In 1933, the
Athens Charter
The Athens Charter (french: Charte d'Athènes, Greek: Χάρτα των Αθηνών) was a 1933 document about urban planning published by the Swiss architect Le Corbusier. The work was based upon Le Corbusier’s '' Ville Radieuse'' (Radiant Ci ...
, a manifesto of the modernist movement, was signed and published by
Le Corbusier. The primary architects of this movement were: Ioannis Despotopoulos,
Dimitris Pikionis
Demetrios ("Dimitris") Pikionis ( el, Δημήτριος (Δημήτρης) Πικιώνης; 1887–1968) was a Greek architect, and also painter, of the 20th century who had a considerable influence on modern Greek architecture. He was a foundi ...
,
Patroklos Karantinos and Takis Zenetos. Following
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the World War II by country, vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great power ...
, and the
Greek Civil War
The Greek Civil War ( el, ο Eμφύλιος �όλεμος}, ''o Emfýlios'' 'Pólemos'' "the Civil War") took place from 1946 to 1949. It was mainly fought against the established Kingdom of Greece, which was supported by the United Kingdom and ...
, the massive construction of
apartment buildings
An apartment (American English), or flat (British English, Indian English, South African English), is a self-contained housing unit (a type of residential real estate) that occupies part of a building, generally on a single story. There are ma ...
in major Greek city centres, was a major contributory factor for the Greek economy and the post-war recovery. The first
skyscrapers were also constructed during the 1960s and 1970s, such as the
OTE Tower and the
Athens Tower Complex.
Cinema
Cinema first appeared in Greece in 1896, but the first actual cine-theatre was opened in 1907. In 1914, the ''Asty Films Company'' was founded, which started the production of long films in Greece. ''Golfo'' (Γκόλφω), a well known traditional love story, is the first Greek long movie, although there were several minor productions such as newscasts before this. In 1931,
Orestis Laskos directed ''Daphnis and Chloe'' (''Δάφνις και Χλόη''), contained the first nude scene in the history of European cinema; it was also the first Greek movie which was played abroad. In 1944,
Katina Paxinou was honoured with the
Best Supporting Actress Academy Award
The Academy Awards, better known as the Oscars, are awards for artistic and technical merit for the American and international film industry. The awards are regarded by many as the most prestigious, significant awards in the entertainment ind ...
for ''
For Whom the Bell Tolls
''For Whom the Bell Tolls'' is a novel by Ernest Hemingway published in 1940. It tells the story of Robert Jordan, a young American volunteer attached to a Republican guerrilla unit during the Spanish Civil War. As a dynamiter, he is assigne ...
''.
The 1950s and early 1960s are considered by many as the Golden age of Greek cinema. Directors and actors of this era were recognized as important historical figures in Greece and some gained international acclaim:
Michael Cacoyannis
Michael Cacoyannis ( el, Μιχάλης Κακογιάννης, ''Michalis Kakogiannis''; 11 June 1922 – 25 July 2011), sometimes credited as Michael Yannis, was a Greek Cypriot theatre and film director, writer, producer, and actor.
...
,
Alekos Sakellarios
Alekos Sakellarios ( el, Αλέκος Σακελλάριος, 13 November 1913 in Athens – 28 August 1991 in Athens) was a Greek writer and a director.
He was born in Athens and grew up in Agios Panteleimonas and began to study journali ...
,
Melina Mercouri,
Nikos Tsiforos
Nikos Tsiforos ( el, Νίκος Τσιφόρος; 27 August 1912 – 6 August 1970) was a Greek humorist, screenwriter, and film director. He had more than 60 film scripts to his credit between 1948 and 1970. He further directed 17 films be ...
,
Iakovos Kambanelis,
Katina Paxinou,
Nikos Koundouros,
Ellie Lambeti,
Irene Papas, etc. More than sixty films per year were made, with the majority having
film noir elements. Notable films were ''
The Counterfeit Coin
''The Counterfeit Coin'' ( el, Ιστορία μιας κάλπικης λίρας, Istoria mias kalpikis liras, Story of a fake pound; also Η κάλπικη λίρα, ''I kalpiki lira'', "the fake pound") is a Greek comedy-drama film, produced ...
'' (''Η κάλπικη λίρα'', 1955, directed by
Giorgos Tzavellas George Tzavellas, also rendered Giorgos Tzavellas, Yiorgos Tzavellas, or Yorgos Javellas ( el, Γιώργος Τζαβέλλας, 1916, Athens – October 18, 1976), was a Greek film director, screenwriter, and playwright. His filmmaking was particu ...
), ''Bitter Bread'' (''Πικρό Ψωμί'', 1951, directed by Grigoris Grigoriou), ''
The Ogre of Athens
''O Drákos'' ( el, Ο Δράκος; English: ''The Ogre of Athens'' or ''The fiend of Athens''), or simply The Dragon, is a 1956 Greek existential and satirical drama crime film, directed by Nikos Koundouros. It tells the story of Thomas, a mous ...
'' (''O Drakos'', 1956, directed by
Nikos Koundouros), ''
Stella'' (1955, directed by Cacoyannis and written by Kampanellis). Cacoyannis also directed ''
Zorba the Greek
''Zorba the Greek'' ( el, Βίος και Πολιτεία του Αλέξη Ζορμπά, , Life and Times of Alexis Zorbas) is a novel written by the Cretan author Nikos Kazantzakis, first published in 1946. It is the tale of a young Greek int ...
'' with Anthony Quinn which received Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film nominations.
Finos Film
Finos Film (Greek: Φίνος Φιλμ) is a film production company that dominated the Greek film industry from 1943 to 1977. It was founded by Filopimin Finos in 1942 during World War II. It was the biggest film production company in Greece a ...
also contributed to this period with movies such as ''Λατέρνα, Φτώχεια και Φιλότιμο'', ''
The Auntie from Chicago
''The Auntie from Chicago'' ( el, Η θεία από το Σικάγο ''Ê theía apó to Sikágo''; also known as ''Aunt from Chicago'') is a 1957 Greek theatrical comedy film directed by Alekos Sakellarios and produced by Finos Films. The f ...
'' (''Η Θεία από το Σικάγο''), ''
Maiden's Cheek
Maiden's Cheek ( gr, Το ξύλο βγήκε από τον παράδεισο) is a 1959 Greek comedy film directed by Alekos Sakellarios, literally translated as "The beating came from paradise".
Cast
* Aliki Vougiouklaki - ''Liza Papastavrou' ...
'' (''Το ξύλο βγήκε από τον Παράδεισο''), and many more. During the 1970s and 1980s
Theo Angelopoulos directed a series of notable and appreciated movies. His film ''
Eternity and a Day'' won the
Palme d'Or and the
Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the
1998 Cannes Film Festival.
There were also internationally renowned filmmakers in the Greek diaspora such as the
Greek-American Elia Kazan.
Music and dances
Greece has a diverse and highly influential musical tradition, with ancient music influencing the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Roman Republic, Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings aro ...
, and Byzantine liturgical chants and secular music influencing
middle eastern music and the
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ide ...
. Modern Greek music combines these elements, to carry Greeks' interpretation of a wide range of musical forms.
Ancient Greece
The history of music in Greece begins with the music of ancient Greece, largely structured on the
Lyre and other supporting
string instruments of the era. Beyond the well-known structural legacies of the
Pythagorean scale, and the related mathematical developments it upheld to define western classical music, relatively little is understood about the precise character of music during this period; we do know, however, that it left, as so often, a strong mark on the culture of
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus ( legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
. What has been gleaned about the social role and character of ancient Greek music comes largely from pottery and other forms of
Greek art
Greek art began in the Cycladic and Minoan civilization, and gave birth to Western classical art in the subsequent Geometric, Archaic and Classical periods (with further developments during the Hellenistic Period). It absorbed influences of E ...
.
Ancient Greeks believed that dancing was invented by the
gods and therefore associated it with religious ceremony. They believed that the gods offered this gift to select mortals only, who in turn taught dancing to their fellow-men.
Periodic evidence in ancient texts indicates that dance was held in high regard, in particular for its educational qualities. Dance, along with writing, music, and physical exercise, was fundamental to the commenced in a circle and ended with the dancers facing one another. When not dancing in a circle the dancers held their hands high or waved them to the left and right. They held cymbals (very like the zilia of today) or a kerchief in their hands, and their movements were emphasized by their long sleeves. As they danced, they sang, either set songs or extemporized ones, sometimes in unison, sometimes in refrain, repeating the verse sung by the lead dancer. The onlookers joined in, clapping the rhythm or singing. Professional singers, often the
musicians themselves, composed lyrics to suit the occasion.
Byzantine Greece
The
Byzantine music is also of major significance to the history and development of European music, as
liturgical chants became the foundation and stepping stone for music of the Renaissance (see:
Renaissance Music). It is also certain that Byzantine music included an extensive tradition of instrumental court music and dance; any other picture would be both incongruous with the historically and archaeologically documented opulence of the Eastern Roman Empire. There survive a few but explicit accounts of secular music. A characteristic example is the accounts of pneumatic organs, whose construction was further advanced in the eastern empire prior to their development in the west following the Renaissance.
Byzantine instruments included the guitar, single, double or multiple flute, sistrum, timpani (drum), psaltirio, Sirigs, lyre, cymbals, keras and kanonaki.
Popular dances of this period included the ''Syrtos'', ''Geranos'', ''Mantilia'', ''Saximos'', ''Pyrichios'', and ''Kordakas'' . Some of these dances have their origins in the ancient period and are still enacted in some form today.
Modern Greece
A range of domestically and internationally known composers and performers across the musical spectrum have found success in modern Greece, while traditional
Greek music is noted as a mixture of influences from indigenous culture with those of west and east. A few
Ottoman as well as medieval Italian elements can be heard in the traditional songs, ''dhimotiká'', as well as in the modern
bluesy
rembétika music. A well-known Greek musical instrument is the
bouzouki. "Bouzouki" is a descriptive Turkish name, but the instrument itself is probably of Greek origin (from the ancient Greek lute known as
pandoura, a kind of guitar, clearly visible in ancient statues, especially female figurines of the "Tanagraies" playing cord instruments).
Famous Greek musicians and composers of modern era include the central figure of 20th-century European modernism
Iannis Xenakis, a composer, architect and theorist.
Maria Callas,
Nikos Skalkottas
Nikos Skalkottas ( el, Νίκος Σκαλκώτας; 21 March 1904 – 19 September 1949) was a Greek composer of 20th-century classical music. A member of the Second Viennese School, he drew his influences from both the classical reperto ...
,
Mikis Theodorakis,
Dimitris Mitropoulos
Dimitri Mitropoulos ( el, Δημήτρης Μητρόπουλος; The dates 18 February 1896 and 1 March 1896 both appear in the literature. Many of Mitropoulos's early interviews and program notes gave 18 February. In his later interviews, howe ...
,
Manos Hadjidakis and
Vangelis also lead twentieth-century Greek contributions, alongside
Demis Roussos,
Nana Mouskouri,
Yanni,
Georges Moustaki,
Eleni Karaindrou and others.
The birth of the first School of modern Greek classical music (
Heptanesean or Ionian School, Greek:''Επτανησιακή Σχολή'') came through the
Ionian Islands (notable composers include
Spyridon Samaras,
Nikolaos Mantzaros
Nikolaos Chalikiopoulos Mantzaros (, ; , 26 October 1795 – 12 April 1872) was a Greek-Italian composer born in Corfu, major representative and founder of the so-called Ionian School of music (Επτανησιακή Σχολή).
Biography
Mant ...
and
Pavlos Carrer), while
Manolis Kalomiris
Manolis Kalomiris ( el, Μανώλης Καλομοίρης; December 14, 1883, Smyrna – April 3, 1962, Athens) was a Greek classical composer. He was the founder of the Greek National School of Music.
Biography
Born in Smyrna, he attended s ...
is considered the founder of the ''Greek National School''.
Greece is one of the few places in Europe where the day-to-day role of folk dance is sustained. Rather than functioning as a museum piece preserved only for performances and special events, it is a vivid expression of everyday life. Occasions for dance are usually weddings, family celebrations, and paneyeria (Patron Saints' name days). Dance has its place in ceremonial customs that are still preserved in Greek villages, such as dancing the bride during a wedding and dancing the
trousseau of the bride during the wedding preparations. The
carnival and Easter offer more opportunities for family gatherings and dancing. Greek
taverns providing live entertainment often include folk dances in their program.
Regional characteristics have developed over the years because of variances in
climatic conditions,
land morphology and people's social lives. ''Kalamatianos'' and ''Syrtos'' are considered Pan-Hellenic dances and are danced all over the world in diaspora communities. Others have also crossed boundaries and are known beyond the regions where they originated; these include the ''Pentozali'' from
Crete
Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, ...
, ''Hasapiko'' from Constantinople, ''Zonaradikos'' from
Thrace
Thrace (; el, Θράκη, Thráki; bg, Тракия, Trakiya; tr, Trakya) or Thrake is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe, now split among Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey, which is bounded by the Balkan Mountains to ...
, ''Serra'' from
Pontos and ''Balos'' from the
Aegean islands.
The avant-garde choreographer, director and dancer
Dimitris Papaioannou
Dimitris Papaioannou ( el, Δημήτρης Παπαϊωάννου; born 21 June 1964) is a Greek experimental theater stage director, choreographer and visual artist who drew media attention and acclaim with his creative direction of the Openi ...
was responsible for the critically successful
opening ceremony of the
2004 Olympic Games, with a conception that reflected the classical influences on modern and experimental Greek dance forms.
Painting
Ancient Greece
There were several interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece. Due to their technical differences, they underwent somewhat differentiated developments. Not all painting techniques are equally well represented in the archaeological record. The most respected form of art, according to authors like
Pliny or
Pausanias, were individual, mobile paintings on wooden boards, technically described as
panel paintings. Also, the tradition of wall painting in Greece goes back at least to the
Minoan and
Mycenaean Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second pri ...
, with the lavish fresco decoration of sites like
Knossos,
Tiryns and
Mycenae.
Much of the figural or architectural sculpture of ancient Greece was painted colourfully. This aspect of Greek stonework is described as
polychrome
Polychrome is the "practice of decorating architectural elements, sculpture, etc., in a variety of colors." The term is used to refer to certain styles of architecture, pottery or sculpture in multiple colors.
Ancient Egypt
Colossal statu ...
(from
Greek ''πολυχρωμία'', ''πολύ'' = many and ''χρώμα'' = colour). Due to intensive weathering, polychromy on sculpture and architecture has substantially or totally faded in most cases.
Byzantine Greece
Byzantine art is the term created for the
Eastern Roman Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantino ...
from about the 5th century AD until the fall of
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
in 1453. The most salient feature of this new aesthetic was its "abstract," or anti-naturalistic character. If classical art was marked by the attempt to create representations that mimicked reality as closely as possible, Byzantine art seems to have abandoned this attempt in favor of a more symbolic approach. The Byzantine painting concentrated mainly on
icon
An icon () is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, in the cultures of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Catholic churches. They are not simply artworks; "an icon is a sacred image used in religious devotion". The mos ...
s and
hagiographies.
Post-Byzantine and Modern Greece
The term
Cretan School describes an important school of icon painting, also known as Post-Byzantine art, which flourished while
Crete
Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, ...
was under
Venetian
Venetian often means from or related to:
* Venice, a city in Italy
* Veneto, a region of Italy
* Republic of Venice (697–1797), a historical nation in that area
Venetian and the like may also refer to:
* Venetian language, a Romance language s ...
rule during the late
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ...
, reaching its climax after the
Fall of Constantinople, becoming the central force in Greek painting during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. The Cretan artists developed a particular style of painting under the influence of both Eastern and Western artistic traditions and movements. The most famous product of the school,
El Greco, was the most successful of the many artists who tried to build a career in Western Europe.
The
Heptanese School of painting succeeded the Cretan school as the leading school of Greek post-Byzantine painting after Crete fell to the
Ottomans in 1669. Like the Cretan school it combined Byzantine traditions with an increasing
Western European artistic influence, and also saw the first significant depiction of secular subjects. The school was based in the
Ionian islands, which were not part of Ottoman Greece, from the middle of the 17th century until the middle of the 19th century.
Modern Greek painting, after the
independence
Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the stat ...
and the creation of the modern Greek state, began to be developed around the time of
Romanticism
Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic, literary, musical, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century, and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate ...
and the Greek artists absorbed many elements from their European colleagues, resulting in the culmination of the distinctive style of Greek Romantic art. Notable painters of the era include
Nikolaos Gyzis
Nikolaos Gyzis ( el, Νικόλαος Γύζης ; german: Nikolaus Gysis; 1 March 1842 – 4 January 1901) was considered one of Greece's most important 19th century painters. He was most famous for his work '' Eros and the Painter'', his first ...
,
Georgios Jakobides,
Nikiphoros Lytras
Nikiforos Lytras ( el, Νικηφόρος Λύτρας; 1832 – 13 June 1904) was a Greek painter. He was born in Tinos and trained in Athens at the School of Arts. In 1860, he won a scholarship to Royal Academy of Fine Arts of Munich. After c ...
,
Konstantinos Volanakis and
Theodoros Vryzakis
Theodoros Vryzakis ( el, Θεόδωρος Βρυζάκης; 1819–1878) was a Greek painter, known mostly for his historical scenes. He was one of the founders of the "Munich School", composed of Greek artists who had studied in that city.
Biog ...
.
Sculpture
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greek
monumental sculpture was composed almost entirely of
marble or
bronze; with cast bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century. Both marble and bronze are fortunately easy to form and very durable.
Chryselephantine sculptures, used for temple
cult images and luxury works, used
gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile ...
, most often in
leaf form and
ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived.
By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites had brought forth a plethora of sculptures with traces of notably multicolored surfaces. It was not until published findings by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th and early 21st century that the painting of ancient Greek sculptures became an established fact. Using high-intensity lamps,
ultraviolet light
Ultraviolet (UV) is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength from 10 nm (with a corresponding frequency around 30 PHz) to 400 nm (750 THz), shorter than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays. UV radiatio ...
, specially designed cameras, plaster casts, and certain powdered minerals, Brinkmann proved that the entire
Parthenon, including the actual structure as well as the statues, had been painted.
Byzantine Greece
The Byzantines inherited the
early Christian distrust of
monumental sculpture in religious art, and produced only
relief
Relief is a sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces are bonded to a solid background of the same material. The term '' relief'' is from the Latin verb ''relevo'', to raise. To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that th ...
s, of which very few survivals are anything like life-size, in sharp contrast to the medieval art of the West, where monumental sculpture revived from
Carolingian art
Carolingian art comes from the Frankish Empire in the period of roughly 120 years from about 780 to 900—during the reign of Charlemagne and his immediate heirs—popularly known as the Carolingian Renaissance. The art was produced by and for th ...
onwards. Small ivories were also mostly in relief.
The so-called "minor arts" were very important in Byzantine art and luxury items, including ivories carved in relief as formal presentation
Consular diptychs or caskets such as the
Veroli casket,
hardstone carving
Hardstone carving is a general term in art history and archaeology for the artistic carving of predominantly semi-precious stones (but also of gemstones), such as jade, rock crystal (clear quartz), agate, onyx, jasper, serpentinite, or carn ...
s, enamels, jewelry, metalwork, and
figured silks were produced in large quantities throughout the Byzantine era. Many of these were religious in nature, although a large number of objects with secular or non-representational decoration were produced: for example, ivories representing themes from classical mythology. Byzantine ceramics were relatively crude, as pottery was never used at the tables of the rich, who ate off silver.
Modern Greece
After the establishment of the
Greek Kingdom and the western influence of
Neoclassicism, sculpture was re-discovered by the Greek artists. Main themes included ancient Greek antiquity, the
War of Independence
This is a list of wars of independence (also called liberation wars). These wars may or may not have been successful in achieving a goal of independence.
List
See also
* Lists of active separatist movements
* List of civil wars
* List of ...
and important figures of Greek history.
Notable sculptors of the new state were
Leonidas Drosis (his major work was the extensive neo-classical architectural ornament at the
Academy of Athens,
Lazaros Sochos
Lazaros Sochos ( el, Λάζαρος Σώχος; 1862–1911) was a Greek sculptor. He was born in Tinos and educated in Athens under Leonidas Drosis. He later studied also in Paris.
He is best known for the statue of Theodoros Kolokotronis i ...
,
Georgios Vitalis Georgios (, , ) is a Greek name derived from the word ''georgos'' (, , "farmer" lit. "earth-worker"). The word ''georgos'' (, ) is a compound of ''ge'' (, , "earth", "soil") and ''ergon'' (, , "task", "undertaking", "work").
It is one of the most ...
,
Dimitrios Filippotis
Demetrius is the Latinized form of the Ancient Greek male given name ''Dēmḗtrios'' (), meaning “Demetris” - "devoted to goddess Demeter".
Alternate forms include Demetrios, Dimitrios, Dimitris, Dmytro, Dimitri, Dimitrie, Dimitar, Dumi ...
,
Ioannis Kossos
Ioannis Kossos ( el, Ιωάννης Κόσσος; 1822–1875) was a Greek sculptor of the 19th century. Born in Tripoli, he later studied in Athens and Florence. His work includes several statues and busts in Athens, Patras
Patras ( el, Π ...
,
Yannoulis Chalepas,
Georgios Bonanos and
Lazaros Fytalis.
Theatre
Ancient Greece
Theatre was born in
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders wi ...
. The
city-state
A city-state is an independent sovereign city which serves as the center of political, economic, and cultural life over its contiguous territory. They have existed in many parts of the world since the dawn of history, including cities such as ...
of
Classical Athens, which became a significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its centre, where it was
institutionalised as part of a
festival
A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival c ...
called the
Dionysia
The Dionysia (, , ; Greek: Διονύσια) was a large festival in ancient Athens in honor of the god Dionysus, the central events of which were the theatrical performances of dramatic tragedies and, from 487 BC, comedies. It was the ...
, which honoured the god
Dionysus
In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, myth, Dionysus (; grc, wikt:Διόνυσος, Διόνυσος ) is the god of the grape-harvest, winemaking, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstas ...
.
Tragedy
Tragedy (from the grc-gre, τραγῳδία, ''tragōidia'', ''tragōidia'') is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a main character. Traditionally, the intention of tragedy ...
(late 6th century BC),
comedy
Comedy is a genre of fiction that consists of discourses or works intended to be humorous or amusing by inducing laughter, especially in theatre, film, stand-up comedy, television, radio, books, or any other entertainment medium. The term o ...
(486 BC), and the
satyr play
The satyr play is a form of Attic theatre performance related to both comedy and tragedy. It preserves theatrical elements of dialogue, actors speaking verse, a chorus that dances and sings, masks and costumes. Its relationship to tragedy is stro ...
were the three
drama
Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance: a play, opera, mime, ballet, etc., performed in a theatre, or on radio or television.Elam (1980, 98). Considered as a genre of poetry in general, the dramatic mode has b ...
tic
genre
Genre () is any form or type of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially-agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other f ...
s to emerge there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies and allies in order to promote a common
cultural identity.
The word τραγῳδία (''tragoidia''), from which the word "
tragedy
Tragedy (from the grc-gre, τραγῳδία, ''tragōidia'', ''tragōidia'') is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a main character. Traditionally, the intention of tragedy ...
" is derived, is a
compound of two
Greek words: τράγος (''tragos'') or "goat" and ᾠδή (''
ode'') meaning "song", from ἀείδειν (''aeidein''), "to sing".
This etymology indicates a link with the practices of the ancient
Dionysian cults. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these
fertility rituals became the basis for tragedy and
comedy
Comedy is a genre of fiction that consists of discourses or works intended to be humorous or amusing by inducing laughter, especially in theatre, film, stand-up comedy, television, radio, books, or any other entertainment medium. The term o ...
.
William Ridgeway
Sir William Ridgeway, FBA FRAI (6 August 1853 – 12 August 1926) was an Anglo-Irish classical scholar and the Disney Professor of Archaeology at Cambridge University.
Biography
Ridgeway was born 6 August 1853, at Ballydermot, King's Coun ...
, ''Origin of Tragedy with Special Reference to the Greek Tragedians'', p. 83
Middle Ages
During the Byzantine period, the theatrical art was heavily declined. According to Marios Ploritis, the only form survived was the folk theatre (''Mimos'' and ''Pantomimos''), despite the hostility of the official state. Later, during the Ottoman period, the main theatrical folk art was the ''
Karagiozis
Karagiozis or Karaghiozis ( ell, Καραγκιόζης , tr, Karagöz ) is a shadow puppet and fictional character of Greek folklore, originating in the Turkish shadow play Karagöz and Hacivat. He is the main character of the tales narrated ...
''. The renaissance which led to the modern Greek theatre, took place in the
Venetian Crete. Significant dramatists include
Vitsentzos Kornaros and
Georgios Chortatzis.
Modern Greece
The modern Greek theatre was born after the
Greek independence, in the early 19th century, and initially was influenced by the Heptanesean theatre and melodrama, such as the Italian opera. The
Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù
Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù, Italian for The Noble Theatre of Saint James of Corfu, or simply Teatro di San Giacomo, was a theatre in Corfu, Greece which became the centre of Greek opera between 1733 and 1893.Kardamis, KostasBirth of G ...
was the first theatre and
opera house of modern Greece and the place where the first Greek opera,
Spyridon Xyndas
Spyridon Xyndas or Spiridione Xinda ( el, Σπυρίδων Ξύνδας; June 8, 1812 – November 25, 1896) was a Greek composer and guitarist, whose last name has also been transliterated as "Xinta", "Xinda", "Xindas" and "Xyntas".
Biography
X ...
' ''The Parliamentary Candidate'' (based on an exclusively Greek
libretto) was performed. During the late 19th and early 20th century, the Athenian theatre scene was dominated by
revues,
musical comedies,
operettas and
nocturnes and notable playwrights included
Spyridon Samaras,
Dionysios Lavrangas
The name Dionysius (; el, Διονύσιος ''Dionysios'', "of Dionysus"; la, Dionysius) was common in classical and post-classical times. Etymologically it is a nominalized adjective formed with a -ios suffix from the stem Dionys- of the name ...
,
Theophrastos Sakellaridis
Theophrastos Sakellaridis (Θεόφραστος Σακελλαρίδης) (7 September 1883 2 January 1950), was a Greek composer, conductor, and basic creator of Greek operetta.
Biography
Sakellaridis was born in Athens on 7 September 1883. His ...
and others.
The
National Theatre of Greece was founded in 1880. Notable playwrights of the modern Greek theatre include
Alexandros Rizos Rangavis,
Gregorios Xenopoulos
Gregorios Xenopoulos ( el, Γρηγόριος Ξενόπουλος; December 9, 1867 – 14 January 1951) was a novelist, journalist and playwright from Zakynthos. He was lead editor in the magazine ''The Education of Children'' (Η Διάπλασ ...
,
Nikos Kazantzakis
Nikos Kazantzakis ( el, ; 2 March ( OS 18 February) 188326 October 1957) was a Greek writer. Widely considered a giant of modern Greek literature, he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in nine different years.
Kazantzakis's n ...
,
Angelos Terzakis
Angelos Terzakis ( el, Άγγελος Τερζάκης; 16 February 1907 – 3 August 1979) was a Greek writer of the " Generation of the '30s". He wrote short stories, novels and plays.
Life
He was born in Nafplion in 1907 and lived there until 1 ...
,
Pantelis Horn,
Alekos Sakellarios
Alekos Sakellarios ( el, Αλέκος Σακελλάριος, 13 November 1913 in Athens – 28 August 1991 in Athens) was a Greek writer and a director.
He was born in Athens and grew up in Agios Panteleimonas and began to study journali ...
and
Iakovos Kambanelis, while notable actors include
Cybele Andrianou
Cybele ( el, Κυβέλη) (13 July 1888 – 26 May 1978) was the stage name of the famous Greek actress Cybele Andrianou ( el, Κυβέλη Ανδριανού).
She was born on 13 July 1888 to an unmarried couple in Smyrna and spent the first ...
,
Marika Kotopouli,
Aimilios Veakis,
Orestis Makris,
Katina Paxinou,
Manos Katrakis and
Dimitris Horn
Dimitris Horn () (9 March 1921 – 16 January 1998) was a Greek people, Greek theatrical and film performer of modern times.
Biography
Horn was born in Athens in 1921, the son of playwright Pantelis Horn (himself descended from an Austrians, Aust ...
. Significant directors include
Dimitris Rontiris,
Alexis Minotis and
Karolos Koun.
Cuisine
Greek cuisine has a long tradition and its flavors change with the season and its geography. Greek cookery, historically a forerunner of Western cuisine, spread its culinary influence – via ancient Rome – throughout Europe and beyond.
Ancient Greek cuisine was characterized by its frugality and was founded on the "Mediterranean triad":
wheat,
olive oil, and
wine, with meat being rarely eaten and fish being more common. It was
Archestratos in 320 B.C. who wrote the first cookbook in history. Greece has a culinary tradition of some 4,000 years.
The
Byzantine cuisine
Byzantine cuisine was the continuation of local Greek cuisine and Mediterranean gastronomy. The development of the Byzantine Empire and trade brought in spices, sugar and new vegetables to Greece.
Cooks experimented with new combinations of foo ...
was similar to the classical cuisine including however new ingredients that were not available before, like caviar, nutmeg and lemons, basil, with fish continuing to be an integral part of the diet. Culinary advice was influenced by the theory of humors, first put forth by the ancient Greek doctor
Claudius Aelius Galenus.
The modern Greek cuisine has also influences from the
Ottoman and
Italian cuisine
Italian cuisine (, ) is a Mediterranean cuisine#CITEREFDavid1988, David 1988, Introduction, pp.101–103 consisting of the ingredients, recipes and List of cooking techniques, cooking techniques developed across the Italian Peninsula and late ...
due to the Ottoman and Venetian dominance through the centuries.
Wine production
Greece is one of the oldest
wine-
producing regions in the world. The earliest evidence of
Greek wine has been dated to 6,500 years ago
[Mashed grapes find re-write history of wine](_blank)
Zeenews where wine was produced on a household or communal basis. In ancient times, as trade in wine became extensive, it was transported from end to end of the Mediterranean; Greek wine had especially high prestige in Italy under the Roman Empire. In the medieval period, wines exported from
Crete
Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, ...
,
Monemvasia and other Greek ports fetched high prices in northern Europe.
Education
Education in Greece is compulsory for all children 6–15 years old; namely, it includes Primary (Dimotiko) and Lower Secondary (Gymnasio) Education. The school life of the students, however, can start from the age of 2.5 years (pre-school education) in institutions (private and public) called "Vrefonipiakoi Paidikoi Stathmi" (creches). In some Vrefonipiakoi Stathmoi there are also Nipiaka Tmimata (nursery classes) which operate along with the Nipiagogeia (kindergartens).
Post-compulsory
Secondary Education
Secondary education or post-primary education covers two phases on the International Standard Classification of Education scale. Level 2 or lower secondary education (less commonly junior secondary education) is considered the second and final ph ...
, according to the reforms of 1997 and 2006, consists of two main school types: Genika Lykeia (General Upper Secondary Schools) and the Epaggelmatika Lykeia (Vocational Upper Secondary Schools), as well as the Epaggelmatikes Sxoles (Vocational Schools). Musical, Ecclesiastical and Physical Education Gymnasia and Lykeia are also in operation.
Post-compulsory Secondary Education also includes the
Vocational Training Institutes (IEK), which provide formal but unclassified level of education. These Institutes are not classified as an educational level, because they accept both Gymnasio (lower secondary school) and Lykeio (upper secondary school) graduates according to the relevant specializations they provide. Public higher education is divided into Universities and Technological Education Institutes (TEI). Students are admitted to these Institutes according to their performance at national level examinations taking place at the third grade of Lykeio. Additionally, students are admitted to the Hellenic Open University upon the completion of the 22 year of age by drawing lots.
Nea Dimokratia (
New Democracy), the Greek conservative right political party, has claimed that it will change the law so that private universities gain recognition. Without official recognition, students who have an EES degree are unable to work in the public sector.
PASOK took some action after
EU intervention, namely the creation of a special government agency that certifies the vocational status of certain EES degree holders. However, their academic status still remains a problem. The issue of full recognition is still an issue of debate among Greek politicians.
The
Institute of Entrepreneurship Development (iED) is a Greek Non-governmental organization formed for the promotion of innovation and for enhancing the spirit of entrepreneurship intending to link with other European initiatives.
Greek people
The origins of
Western literature and of the main branches of Western learning may be traced to the era of Greek greatness that began before 700 BC with the epics of
Homer
Homer (; grc, Ὅμηρος , ''Hómēros'') (born ) was a Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Homer is considered one of the ...
, the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey''.
Hesiod
Hesiod (; grc-gre, Ἡσίοδος ''Hēsíodos'') was an ancient Greek poet generally thought to have been active between 750 and 650 BC, around the same time as Homer. He is generally regarded by western authors as 'the first written poet i ...
, the first didactic poet, put into epic verse his descriptions of pastoral life, including practical advice on farming, and allegorical myths. The poets
Alcaeus of Mytilene
Alcaeus of Mytilene (; grc, Ἀλκαῖος ὁ Μυτιληναῖος, ''Alkaios ho Mutilēnaios''; – BC) was a lyric poet from the Greek island of Lesbos who is credited with inventing the Alcaic stanza. He was included in the canonical ...
,
Sappho,
Anacreon
Anacreon (; grc-gre, Ἀνακρέων ὁ Τήϊος; BC) was a Greek lyric poet, notable for his drinking songs and erotic poems. Later Greeks included him in the canonical list of Nine Lyric Poets. Anacreon wrote all of his poetry in t ...
, and
Bacchylides wrote of love, war, and death in lyrics of great feeling and beauty.
Pindar celebrated the Panhellenic athletic festivals in vivid odes. The fables of the slave
Aesop have been famous for more than 2,500 years. Three of the world's greatest dramatists were
Aeschylus
Aeschylus (, ; grc-gre, Αἰσχύλος ; c. 525/524 – c. 456/455 BC) was an ancient Greek tragedian, and is often described as the father of tragedy. Academic knowledge of the genre begins with his work, and understanding of earlier Gree ...
, author of the ''Oresteia'' trilogy;
Sophocles
Sophocles (; grc, Σοφοκλῆς, , Sophoklễs; 497/6 – winter 406/5 BC)Sommerstein (2002), p. 41. is one of three ancient Greek tragedians, at least one of whose plays has survived in full. His first plays were written later than, or c ...
, author of the
Theban plays
Sophocles (; grc, Σοφοκλῆς, , Sophoklễs; 497/6 – winter 406/5 BC)Sommerstein (2002), p. 41. is one of three ancient Greek tragedians, at least one of whose plays has survived in full. His first plays were written later than, or c ...
; and
Euripides
Euripides (; grc, Εὐριπίδης, Eurīpídēs, ; ) was a tragedian of classical Athens. Along with Aeschylus and Sophocles, he is one of the three ancient Greek tragedians for whom any plays have survived in full. Some ancient scholars ...
, author of ''Medea'', ''The Trojan Women'', and ''The Bacchae''.
Aristophanes, the greatest author of comedies, satirized the mores of his day in a series of brilliant plays. Three great historians were
Herodotus
Herodotus ( ; grc, , }; BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria (Italy). He is known fo ...
, regarded as the father of history, known for ''The Persian Wars'';
Thucydides, who generally avoided myth and legend and applied greater standards of historical accuracy in his History of the Peloponnesian War; and
Xenophon, best known for his account of the Greek retreat from Persia, the ''Anabasis''. Outstanding literary figures of the Hellenistic period were
Menander, the chief representative of a newer type of comedy; the poets
Callimachus,
Theocritus, and
Apollonius Rhodius
Apollonius of Rhodes ( grc, Ἀπολλώνιος Ῥόδιος ''Apollṓnios Rhódios''; la, Apollonius Rhodius; fl. first half of 3rd century BC) was an ancient Greek author, best known for the ''Argonautica'', an epic poem about Jason and ...
, author of the ''Argonautica''; and
Polybius, who wrote a detailed history of the Mediterranean world. Noteworthy in the Roman period were
Strabo
Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called " Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-sighted that he could s ...
, a writer on geography;
Plutarch, the father of biography, whose ''Parallel Lives'' of famous Greeks and Romans is a chief source of information about great figures of antiquity;
Pausanias, a travel writer; and
Lucian, a satirist.
The leading philosophers of the period preceding Greece's golden age were
Thales,
Pythagoras
Pythagoras of Samos ( grc, Πυθαγόρας ὁ Σάμιος, Pythagóras ho Sámios, Pythagoras the Samian, or simply ; in Ionian Greek; ) was an ancient Ionian Greek philosopher and the eponymous founder of Pythagoreanism. His poli ...
,
Heraclitus
Heraclitus of Ephesus (; grc-gre, Ἡράκλειτος , "Glory of Hera"; ) was an ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from the city of Ephesus, which was then part of the Persian Empire.
Little is known of Heraclitus's life. He wrot ...
,
Protagoras, and
Democritus
Democritus (; el, Δημόκριτος, ''Dēmókritos'', meaning "chosen of the people"; – ) was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from Abdera, primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe. No ...
.
Socrates
Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no t ...
investigated ethics and politics. His greatest pupil,
Plato
Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
, used Socrates' question-and-answer method of investigating philosophical problems in his famous dialogues. Plato's pupil
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
established the rules of deductive reasoning but also used observation and inductive reasoning, applying himself to the systematic study of almost every form of human endeavor. Outstanding in the Hellenistic period were
Epicurus, the philosopher of moderation;
Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism; and
Diogenes of Sinope, the famous Cynic. The oath of
Hippocrates
Hippocrates of Kos (; grc-gre, Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος, Hippokrátēs ho Kôios; ), also known as Hippocrates II, was a Greek physician of the classical period who is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history o ...
, the father of medicine, is still recited by newly graduating physicians.
Euclid
Euclid (; grc-gre, Εὐκλείδης; BC) was an ancient Greek mathematician active as a geometer and logician. Considered the "father of geometry", he is chiefly known for the '' Elements'' treatise, which established the foundations of ...
evolved the system of geometry that bears his name.
Archimedes discovered the principles of mechanics and hydrostatics.
Eratosthenes calculated the earth's circumference with remarkable accuracy, and
Hipparchus
Hipparchus (; el, Ἵππαρχος, ''Hipparkhos''; BC) was a Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician. He is considered the founder of trigonometry, but is most famous for his incidental discovery of the precession of the e ...
Founded scientific astronomy.
Galen
Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus ( el, Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September 129 – c. AD 216), often Anglicized as Galen () or Galen of Pergamon, was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. Considered to be o ...
was an outstanding physician of ancient times.
The sculptor
Phidias created the statue of Athena and the figure of Zeus in the temple at Olympia and supervised the construction and decoration of the Parthenon. Another renowned sculptor was
Praxiteles.
The legal reforms of Solon served as the basis of Athenian democracy. The Athenian general
Miltiades the Younger led the victory over the Persians at Marathon in 490 BC, and
Themistocles was chiefly responsible for the victory at Salamis 10 years later.
Pericles, the virtual ruler of Athens for more than 25 years, added to the political power of that city, inaugurated the construction of the Parthenon and other noteworthy buildings, and encouraged the arts of sculpture and painting. With the decline of Athens, first Sparta and then Thebes, under the great military tactician
Epaminondas, gained the ascendancy; but soon thereafter, two military geniuses,
Philip II of Macedon
Philip II of Macedon ( grc-gre, Φίλιππος ; 382 – 21 October 336 BC) was the king ('' basileus'') of the ancient kingdom of Macedonia from 359 BC until his death in 336 BC. He was a member of the Argead dynasty, founders of the ...
and his son
Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...
, gained control over all of Greece and formed a vast empire stretching as far east as India. It was against Philip that
Demosthenes, the greatest Greek orator, directed his diatribes, the ''Philippics''.
The most renowned Greek painter during the Renaissance was
El Greco, born in
Crete
Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, ...
, whose major works, painted in Spain, have influenced many 20th-century artists. An outstanding modern literary figure is
Nikos Kazantzakis
Nikos Kazantzakis ( el, ; 2 March ( OS 18 February) 188326 October 1957) was a Greek writer. Widely considered a giant of modern Greek literature, he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in nine different years.
Kazantzakis's n ...
, a novelist and poet who composed a vast sequel to Homer's ''Odyssey''. Leading modern poets are
Kostis Palamas
Kostis Palamas ( el, Κωστής Παλαμάς; – 27 February 1943) was a Greek poet who wrote the words to the Olympic Hymn. He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the cofounders of the so-called N ...
, and
Constantine P. Cavafy
Konstantinos Petrou Kavafis ( el, Κωνσταντίνος Πέτρου Καβάφης ; April 29 (April 17, OS), 1863 – April 29, 1933), known, especially in English, as Constantine P. Cavafy and often published as C. P. Cavafy (), was a Gree ...
, as well as
George Seferis
Giorgos or George Seferis (; gr, Γιώργος Σεφέρης ), the pen name of Georgios Seferiades (Γεώργιος Σεφεριάδης; March 13 – September 20, 1971), was a Greek poet and diplomat. He was one of the most important G ...
, and
Odysseus Elytis, winners of the Nobel Prize for literature in 1963 and 1979, respectively. The work of social theorist
Cornelius Castoriadis is known for its multidisciplinary breadth. Musicians of stature are the composers
Nikos Skalkottas
Nikos Skalkottas ( el, Νίκος Σκαλκώτας; 21 March 1904 – 19 September 1949) was a Greek composer of 20th-century classical music. A member of the Second Viennese School, he drew his influences from both the classical reperto ...
,
Iannis Xenakis, and
Mikis Theodorakis; the conductor
Dmitri Mitropoulos; and the soprano
Maria Callas. Filmmakers who have won international acclaim are Greek-Americans
John Cassavetes and
Elia Kazan, and Greeks
Michael Cacoyannis
Michael Cacoyannis ( el, Μιχάλης Κακογιάννης, ''Michalis Kakogiannis''; 11 June 1922 – 25 July 2011), sometimes credited as Michael Yannis, was a Greek Cypriot theatre and film director, writer, producer, and actor.
...
and
Costa-Gavras. Actresses of note are
Katina Paxinou;
Melina Mercouri, who was appointed minister of culture and science in the Socialist cabinet in 1981; and
Irene Papas.
Outstanding Greek public figures in the 20th century include Cretan-born
Eleutherios Venizelos, prominent statesman of the interwar period;
Ioannis Metaxas, dictator from 1936 until his death;
Constantine Karamanlis, prime minister (1955–63, 1974–80) and president (1980–85) of Greece;
George Papandreou, head of the Center Union Party and prime minister (1963–65); and his son
Andreas Papandreou, the PASOK leader who became prime minister in 1981.
Costas Simitis was leader of PASOK and prime minister from 1996 to 2004. He was succeeded by
Kostas Karamanlis
Konstantinos A. Karamanlis ( el, Κωνσταντίνος Αλεξάνδρου Καραμανλής; born 14 September 1956), commonly known as Kostas Karamanlis ( el, Κώστας Καραμανλής, ), is a Greek politician who served as the ...
.
Language
The Greek language is the official language of the
Hellenic Republic and
Republic of Cyprus and has a total of 15 million speakers worldwide; it is an
Indo-European
The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Du ...
language. It is particularly remarkable in the depth of its continuity, beginning with the pre-historic
Mycenaean Greek and the
Linear B script and maybe the
Linear A script associated with
Minoan civilization, though Linear A is still undeciphered. Greek language is clearly detected in the Mycenaean language and the
Cypriot syllabary, and eventually the dialects of
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Dark Ages (), the Archaic pe ...
, of which
Attic Greek bears the most resemblance to
Modern Greek
Modern Greek (, , or , ''Kiní Neoellinikí Glóssa''), generally referred to by speakers simply as Greek (, ), refers collectively to the dialects of the Greek language spoken in the modern era, including the official standardized form of the ...
. The history of the language spans over 3400 years of written records.
Greek has had enormous impact on other languages both directly on the
Romance languages
The Romance languages, sometimes referred to as Latin languages or Neo-Latin languages, are the various modern languages that evolved from Vulgar Latin. They are the only extant subgroup of the Italic languages in the Indo-European language ...
, and indirectly through its influence on the emerging
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...
language during the early days of
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus ( legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
. Signs of this influence, and its many developments, can be seen throughout the family of Western European languages.
Internet and "Greeklish"
More recently, the rise of internet-based communication services as well as cell phones have caused a distinctive form of Greek written partially, and sometimes fully in Latin characters to emerge; this is known as
Greeklish
Greeklish, a portmanteau of the words Greek and English, also known as Grenglish, Latinoellinika/Λατινοελληνικά or ASCII Greek, is the Greek language written using the Latin alphabet. Unlike standardized systems of Romanization of G ...
, a form that has spread across the Greek diaspora and even to the two countries with majority Greek population,
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders wi ...
and
Cyprus
Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is ...
.
Katharevousa
Katharévousa (Καθαρεύουσα) is a form of the Greek Language midway between modern and ancient forms set in train during the early nineteenth century by Greek intellectual and revolutionary leader
Adamantios Korais
Adamantios Korais or Koraïs ( el, Ἀδαμάντιος Κοραῆς ; la, Adamantius Coraes; french: Adamance Coray; 27 April 17486 April 1833) was a Greek scholar credited with laying the foundations of modern Greek literature and a major ...
, intended to return the Greek language closer to its ancient form. Its influence, in recent years, evolved toward a more formal role, and it came to be used primarily for official purposes such as diplomacy, politics, and other forms of official documentation. It has nevertheless had significant effects on the Greek language as it is still written and spoken today, and both vocabulary and grammatical and syntactical forms have re-entered
Modern Greek
Modern Greek (, , or , ''Kiní Neoellinikí Glóssa''), generally referred to by speakers simply as Greek (, ), refers collectively to the dialects of the Greek language spoken in the modern era, including the official standardized form of the ...
via Katharevousa.
Dialects
There are a variety of dialects of the Greek language; the most notable include
Cappadocian
Cappadocian Greeks also known as Greek Cappadocians ( el, Έλληνες-Καππαδόκες, Ελληνοκαππαδόκες, Καππαδόκες; tr, Kapadokyalı Rumlar) or simply Cappadocians are an ethnic Greek community native to the ...
,
Cretan Greek (which is closely related to most
Aegean Islands' dialects),
Cypriot Greek,
Pontic Greek, the
Griko language spoken in Southern Italy, and
Tsakonian, still spoken in the modern prefecture of
Arcadia and widely noted as a surviving regional dialect of
Doric Greek.
Literature
Greece has a remarkably rich and resilient literary tradition, extending over 2800 years and through several eras. The Classical era is that most commonly associated with
Greek Literature, beginning in 800 BCE and maintaining its influence through to the beginnings of
Byzantine
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
period, whereafter the influence of Christianity began to spawn a new development of the Greek written word. The many elements of a millennia-old tradition are reflected in Modern Greek literature, including the works of the Nobel laureates
Odysseus Elytis and
George Seferis
Giorgos or George Seferis (; gr, Γιώργος Σεφέρης ), the pen name of Georgios Seferiades (Γεώργιος Σεφεριάδης; March 13 – September 20, 1971), was a Greek poet and diplomat. He was one of the most important G ...
.
Ancient Greece
The first recorded works in the western literary tradition are the
epic poems of
Homer
Homer (; grc, Ὅμηρος , ''Hómēros'') (born ) was a Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Homer is considered one of the ...
and
Hesiod
Hesiod (; grc-gre, Ἡσίοδος ''Hēsíodos'') was an ancient Greek poet generally thought to have been active between 750 and 650 BC, around the same time as Homer. He is generally regarded by western authors as 'the first written poet i ...
. Early Greek
lyric poetry, as represented by poets such as
Sappho and
Pindar, was responsible for defining the lyric
genre
Genre () is any form or type of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially-agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other f ...
as it is understood today in western literature.
Aesop wrote his ''
Fables'' in the 6th century BC. These innovations were to have a profound influence not only on Roman poets, most notably
Virgil
Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 7021 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He composed three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: th ...
in his epic poem on the founding of Rome, ''
The Aeneid'', but one that flourished throughout Europe.
Classical Greece is also judged the birthplace of
theatre
Theatre or theater is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live performers, usually actors or actresses, to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The perfor ...
.
Aeschylus
Aeschylus (, ; grc-gre, Αἰσχύλος ; c. 525/524 – c. 456/455 BC) was an ancient Greek tragedian, and is often described as the father of tragedy. Academic knowledge of the genre begins with his work, and understanding of earlier Gree ...
introduced the ideas of
dialogue and interacting characters to playwriting and in doing so, he effectively invented "drama": his ''
Oresteia'' trilogy of plays is judged his crowning achievement. Other refiners of playwriting were
Sophocles
Sophocles (; grc, Σοφοκλῆς, , Sophoklễs; 497/6 – winter 406/5 BC)Sommerstein (2002), p. 41. is one of three ancient Greek tragedians, at least one of whose plays has survived in full. His first plays were written later than, or c ...
and
Euripides
Euripides (; grc, Εὐριπίδης, Eurīpídēs, ; ) was a tragedian of classical Athens. Along with Aeschylus and Sophocles, he is one of the three ancient Greek tragedians for whom any plays have survived in full. Some ancient scholars ...
.
Aristophanes, a comic playwright, defined and shaped the idea of
comedy
Comedy is a genre of fiction that consists of discourses or works intended to be humorous or amusing by inducing laughter, especially in theatre, film, stand-up comedy, television, radio, books, or any other entertainment medium. The term o ...
as a theatrical form.
Herodotus
Herodotus ( ; grc, , }; BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria (Italy). He is known fo ...
and
Thucydides are often attributed with developing the modern study of
history
History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
into a field worthy of philosophical, literary, and scientific pursuit.
Polybius first introduced into study the concept of
military history.
Philosophy
Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. ...
entered literature in the dialogues of
Plato
Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
, while his pupil
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
, in his work the ''
Poetics'', formulated the first set criteria for
literary criticism. Both these literary figures, in the context of the broader contributions of Greek philosophy in the Classical and Hellenistic eras, were to give rise to idea of
political Science
Political science is the scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and power, and the analysis of political activities, political thought, political behavior, and associated constitutions and ...
, the study of political evolution and the critique of governmental systems.
Byzantine Greece
The growth of Christianity throughout the
Greco-Roman world in the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries, together with the Hellenization of the
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
of the period, would lead to the formation of a unique literary form, combining Christian, Greek and Oriental influences. In its turn, this would promote developments such as Cretan poetry, the growth of poetic satire in the
Greek East and the several pre-eminent historians of the period.
Modern Greece
Modern Greek literature refers to literature written in the
Greek language
Greek ( el, label= Modern Greek, Ελληνικά, Elliniká, ; grc, Ἑλληνική, Hellēnikḗ) is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece, Cyprus, southern Italy ( Calabria and Salento), souther ...
from the 11th century, with texts written in a language that is more familiar to the ears of
Greeks
The Greeks or Hellenes (; el, Έλληνες, ''Éllines'' ) are an ethnic group and nation indigenous to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea regions, namely Greece, Cyprus, Albania, Italy, Turkey, Egypt, and, to a lesser extent, ot ...
today than is the language of the early Byzantine times.
The
Cretan Renaissance poem ''
Erotokritos'' is undoubtedly the masterpiece of this early period of modern Greek literature, and represents one of its supreme achievements. It is a verse
romance written around 1600 by
Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553–1613). The other major representative of the
Cretan literature was
Georgios Chortatzis and his most notable work was ''
Erofili''. Other plays include ''The Sacrifice of Abraham'' by
Kornaros, ''Panoria'' and ''Katsourbos'' by
Chortatzis, ''
King Rodolinos'' by
Andreas Troilos, ''Stathis (comedy)'' and ''Voskopoula'' by unknown artists.
Much later,
Diafotismos was an ideological, philological, linguistic and philosophical movement among 18th century Greeks that translate the ideas and values of
European Enlightenment into the Greek world.
Adamantios Korais
Adamantios Korais or Koraïs ( el, Ἀδαμάντιος Κοραῆς ; la, Adamantius Coraes; french: Adamance Coray; 27 April 17486 April 1833) was a Greek scholar credited with laying the foundations of modern Greek literature and a major ...
and
Rigas Feraios are two of the most notable figures. In 1819, ''
Korakistika'', written by
Iakovakis Rizos Neroulos, was a
lampoon against the Greek intellectual
Adamantios Korais
Adamantios Korais or Koraïs ( el, Ἀδαμάντιος Κοραῆς ; la, Adamantius Coraes; french: Adamance Coray; 27 April 17486 April 1833) was a Greek scholar credited with laying the foundations of modern Greek literature and a major ...
and his linguistic views, who favoured the use of a more conservative form of the Greek language, closer to the ancient.
The years before the
Greek Independence, the
Ionian islands became the center of the
Heptanese School (literature). Its main characteristics was the Italian influence, romanticism, nationalism and use of
Demotic Greek. Notable representatives were
Andreas Laskaratos,
Andreas Kalvos,
Aristotelis Valaoritis and
Dionysios Solomos.
After the independence the intellectual center was transferred in
Athens
Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates a ...
. A major figure of this new era was
Kostis Palamas
Kostis Palamas ( el, Κωστής Παλαμάς; – 27 February 1943) was a Greek poet who wrote the words to the Olympic Hymn. He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the cofounders of the so-called N ...
, considered "national poet" of Greece. He was the central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the cofounders of the so-called
New Athenian School
The term New Athenian School ( el, Νέα Αθηναϊκή Σχολή), also known as the 1880s Generation (Γενιά του 1880) or the Palamian School (Παλαμική Σχολή) after its leading member Kostis Palamas, denotes the litera ...
(or Palamian School). Its main characteristic was the use of
Demotic Greek. He was also the writer of the
Olympic Hymn.
Moving into the twentieth century, the modern Greek literary tradition spans the work of
Constantine P. Cavafy
Konstantinos Petrou Kavafis ( el, Κωνσταντίνος Πέτρου Καβάφης ; April 29 (April 17, OS), 1863 – April 29, 1933), known, especially in English, as Constantine P. Cavafy and often published as C. P. Cavafy (), was a Gree ...
, considered a key figure of twentieth-century poetry,
Giorgos Seferis (whose works and poems aimed to fuse the literature of Ancient and Modern Greece) and
Odysseas Elytis
Odysseas Elytis ( el, Οδυσσέας Ελύτης , pen name of Odysseas Alepoudellis, el, Οδυσσέας Αλεπουδέλλης; 2 November 1911 – 18 March 1996) was a Greek poet, man of letters, essayist and translator, regarded as th ...
, both of whom won the
Nobel Prize for Literature.
Nikos Kazantzakis
Nikos Kazantzakis ( el, ; 2 March ( OS 18 February) 188326 October 1957) was a Greek writer. Widely considered a giant of modern Greek literature, he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in nine different years.
Kazantzakis's n ...
is also considered a dominant figure, with works such as ''
The Last Temptation of Christ'' and ''
The Greek Passion'' receiving international recognition.
Philosophy, science and mathematics
The
Greek world
In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in 3 ...
is widely regarded as having given birth to scientific thought by means of observation, thought, and development of a theory without the intervention of a supernatural force.
Thales,
Anaximander and
Democritus
Democritus (; el, Δημόκριτος, ''Dēmókritos'', meaning "chosen of the people"; – ) was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from Abdera, primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe. No ...
were amongst those contributing significantly to the establishment of this tradition. It is also, and perhaps more commonly in the western imagination, identified with the dawn of
Western philosophy
Western philosophy encompasses the philosophy, philosophical thought and work of the Western world. Historically, the term refers to the philosophical thinking of Western culture, beginning with the ancient Greek philosophy of the Pre-Socratic p ...
, as well as a mapping out of the
natural sciences. Greek developments of mathematics continued well up until the decline of the
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
. In the modern era Greeks continue to contribute to the fields of
science
Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earliest archeological evidence ...
,
mathematics
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
and
philosophy
Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. ...
.
Ancient Greece
The tradition of
philosophy
Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. ...
in ancient Greece accompanied its literary development. Greek learning had a profound influence on
Western and
Middle East
The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabian Peninsula, Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Anatolia, Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Pro ...
ern civilizations. The works of
Socrates
Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no t ...
,
Plato
Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
,
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
, and other Greek philosophers profoundly influenced
Classical thought, the
Islamic Golden Age
The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic, and scientific flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 14th century. This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign ...
, and the
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ide ...
.
The
Ancient Egyptians and
Mesopotamians were very good at maths and at building geometric tombs, but they're not famous for philosophy. Their religious explanations of things are elaborate but unconvincing in philosophical terms. Theocratic societies governed by priestly castes are usually static and monopolise thought. They insist on orthodox explanations and actively discourage independent and unconventional ideas. The Ancient Greeks invented philosophy, but no-one really knows why. Because of their trade across the
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on ...
, they borrowed myths and mysticism as well as architecture and mathematics from their neighbouring civilisations. Some Greek thinkers decided to not accept religious explanations for how the world works, an example being
Xenophanes
Xenophanes of Colophon (; grc, Ξενοφάνης ὁ Κολοφώνιος ; c. 570 – c. 478 BC) was a Greek philosopher, theologian, poet, and critic of Homer from Ionia who travelled throughout the Greek-speaking world in early Classica ...
. They just thought that there just had to be some king of underlying order or logic for the way things are. This will later be given to
Ancient Rome
In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman people, Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom ...
and Modern civilisation.
In
medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pr ...
, doctors still refer to the
Hippocratic oath, instituted by
Hippocrates
Hippocrates of Kos (; grc-gre, Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος, Hippokrátēs ho Kôios; ), also known as Hippocrates II, was a Greek physician of the classical period who is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history o ...
, regarded as foremost in laying the foundations of medicine as a science.
Galen
Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus ( el, Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September 129 – c. AD 216), often Anglicized as Galen () or Galen of Pergamon, was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. Considered to be o ...
built on Hippocrates' theory of the
four humours, and his writings became the foundation of medicine in
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
and the
Middle East
The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabian Peninsula, Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Anatolia, Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Pro ...
for centuries. The physicians
Herophilos and
Paulus Aegineta
Paul of Aegina or Paulus Aegineta ( el, Παῦλος Αἰγινήτης; Aegina, ) was a 7th-century Byzantine Greek physician best known for writing the medical encyclopedia ''Medical Compendium in Seven Books.'' He is considered the “Fathe ...
were pioneers in the study of
anatomy
Anatomy () is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having i ...
, while
Pedanius Dioscorides wrote an extensive treatise on the practice of
pharmacology.
The period of
Classical Greece (from 800 BC until the rise of
Macedon
Macedonia (; grc-gre, Μακεδονία), also called Macedon (), was an ancient kingdom on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece, and later the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece. The kingdom was founded and initially ruled ...
, a Greek state in the north) is that most often associated with Greek advances in science.
Thales of Miletus is regarded by many as the father of
science
Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earliest archeological evidence ...
; he was the first of the ancient philosophers to seek to explain the physical world in terms of natural rather than
supernatural causes.
Pythagoras
Pythagoras of Samos ( grc, Πυθαγόρας ὁ Σάμιος, Pythagóras ho Sámios, Pythagoras the Samian, or simply ; in Ionian Greek; ) was an ancient Ionian Greek philosopher and the eponymous founder of Pythagoreanism. His poli ...
was a
mathematician often described as the "father of numbers"; it is believed that he had the pioneering insight into the numerical ratios that determine the
musical scale, and the
Pythagorean theorem is commonly attributed to him.
Diophantus of Alexandria
Diophantus of Alexandria ( grc, Διόφαντος ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς; born probably sometime between AD 200 and 214; died around the age of 84, probably sometime between AD 284 and 298) was an Alexandrian mathematician, who was the aut ...
, in turn, was the "father of
algebra
Algebra () is one of the broad areas of mathematics. Roughly speaking, algebra is the study of mathematical symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols in formulas; it is a unifying thread of almost all of mathematics.
Elementary ...
". Many parts of modern
geometry
Geometry (; ) is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is c ...
are based on the work of
Euclid
Euclid (; grc-gre, Εὐκλείδης; BC) was an ancient Greek mathematician active as a geometer and logician. Considered the "father of geometry", he is chiefly known for the '' Elements'' treatise, which established the foundations of ...
, while
Eratosthenes was one of the first scientific
geographers, calculating the
circumference
In geometry, the circumference (from Latin ''circumferens'', meaning "carrying around") is the perimeter of a circle or ellipse. That is, the circumference would be the arc length of the circle, as if it were opened up and straightened out ...
of the
Earth
Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. While large volumes of water can be found throughout the Solar System, only Earth sustains liquid surface water. About 71% of Earth's sur ...
and conceiving the first
maps based on scientific principles.
The Hellenistic period, following Alexander's conquests, continued and built upon this knowledge.
Hipparchus
Hipparchus (; el, Ἵππαρχος, ''Hipparkhos''; BC) was a Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician. He is considered the founder of trigonometry, but is most famous for his incidental discovery of the precession of the e ...
is considered the pre-eminent astronomical observer of the ancient world, and was probably the first to develop an accurate method for the prediction of
solar eclipse, while
Aristarchus of Samos was the first known
astronomer to propose a
heliocentric model of the
Solar System, though the
geocentric model of
Ptolemy
Claudius Ptolemy (; grc-gre, Πτολεμαῖος, ; la, Claudius Ptolemaeus; AD) was a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist, who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were of importanc ...
was more commonly accepted until the seventeenth century. Ptolemy also contributed substantially to
cartography
Cartography (; from grc, χάρτης , "papyrus, sheet of paper, map"; and , "write") is the study and practice of making and using maps. Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality (or an i ...
and to the science of
optics
Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultrav ...
. For his part
Archimedes was the first to calculate the value of
''π'' and a
geometric series, and also the earliest known mathematical
physicist
A physicist is a scientist who specializes in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe.
Physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate cau ...
discovering the law of
buoyancy
Buoyancy (), or upthrust, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of a partially or fully immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus the ...
, as well as conceiving the
irrigation device known as
Archimedes' screw
The Archimedes screw, also known as the Archimedean screw, hydrodynamic screw, water screw or Egyptian screw, is one of the earliest hydraulic machines. Using Archimedes screws as water pumps (Archimedes screw pump (ASP) or screw pump) dates back ...
.
Byzantine Greece
The Byzantine period remained largely a period of preservation in terms of classical Greco-Roman texts; there were, however, significant advances made in the fields of
medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pr ...
and
historical scholarship. Theological
philosophy
Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. ...
also remained an area of study, and there was, while not matching the achievements of preceding ages, a certain increase in the professionalism of study of these subjects, epitomized by the founding of the University of Constantinople.
Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, the architects of the famous
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia ( 'Holy Wisdom'; ; ; ), officially the Hagia Sophia Grand Mosque ( tr, Ayasofya-i Kebir Cami-i Şerifi), is a mosque and major cultural and historical site in Istanbul, Turkey. The cathedral was originally built as a Greek Ortho ...
in
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
, also contributed towards mathematical theories concerning architectural form, and the perceived mathematical harmony needed to create a multi-domed structure. These ideas were to prove a heavy influence on the Ottoman architect
Mimar Sinan in his creation of the
Blue Mosque, also in Constantinople. Tralles in particular produced several treatises on the
Natural Sciences, as well as his other forays into mathematics such as
Conic Sections.
The gradual migration of Greeks from Byzantium to the
Italian city states following the decline of the Byzantine Empire, and the texts they brought with them combined with the academic positions they held, was a major factor in lighting the first sparks of the
Italian Renaissance.
Modern Greece
Greeks continue to contribute to science and technology in the modern world.
John Argyris, a mathematician and engineer, was among the creators of the
finite element method and the
direct stiffness method As one of the methods of structural analysis, the direct stiffness method, also known as the matrix stiffness method, is particularly suited for computer-automated analysis of complex structures including the statically indeterminate type. It is a ...
.
Constantin Carathéodory made significant contributions to the
theory of functions of a real variable,
calculus of variations and
measure theory, credited with the introduction of several
mathematical theorems. In physics,
John Iliopoulos is known for the prediction of the
charm quark and the proposition of the
GIM mechanism, as well as the
Fayet–Iliopoulos D-term formula, while
Dimitri Nanopoulos is one of the principal developers of the
Flipped SU(5) model.
Biologist
Fotis Kafatos pioneers in the field of molecular
cloning and
genomics, and he was the founding president of the
European Research Council. In medicine,
Georgios Papanikolaou contributed heavily to the development of
cervical screening inventing the
Pap test, which is among the most common methods of cervical screening worldwide.
Car designer
Alec Issigonis designed the groundbreaking and iconic
Mini automobile, while
Michael Dertouzos
Michael Leonidas Dertouzos ( el, Μιχαήλ Λεωνίδας Δερτούζος; November 5, 1936 – August 27, 2001) was a professor in the department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ...
was amongst the pioneers of the
Internet
The Internet (or internet) is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a '' network of networks'' that consists of private, p ...
, instrumental in defining the
World Wide Web Consortium and director for 27 years of the
MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, which innovated in a variety of areas during his term.
Nicholas Negroponte, is the founder of the
MIT Media Lab and the
One Laptop per Child project aiming to extend Internet access in the
developing world.
Joseph Sifakis
Joseph Sifakis (Greek: Ιωσήφ Σηφάκης) is a Greek- French computer scientist. He received the 2007 Turing Award, along with Edmund M. Clarke and E. Allen Emerson, for his work on model checking.
Biography
Joseph Sifakis was born in ...
, a computer scientist, has won a
Turing Award
The ACM A. M. Turing Award is an annual prize given by the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) for contributions of lasting and major technical importance to computer science. It is generally recognized as the highest distinction in compu ...
for his pioneering work on
model checking.
Politics
Greece is a
Parliamentary
Republic with a president assuming a more ceremonial role than in some other republics, and the Prime Minister chosen from the leader of the majority party in the parliament. Greece has a codified
constitution
A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed.
When these pr ...
and a written Bill of Rights embedded within it. The current Prime Minister is
Kyriakos Mitsotakis.
The politics of the third
Hellenic Republic have been dominated by two main political parties, the self-proclaimed socialists of
PASOK and the conservative
New Democracy. Until recently PASOK had dominated the political scene, presiding over favourable growth rates economically but in the eyes of critics failing to deliver where unemployment and structural issues such as market liberalization were concerned.
New Democracy's election to government in 2004 has led to various initiatives to modernize the country, such as the education university scheme above as well as labour market liberalization. Politically there has been massive opposition to some of these moves owing to a large, well organized workers' movement in Greece, which distrusts the right wing administration and neo-liberal ideas. The population in general appears to accept many of the initiatives, reflected in governmental support; on the economic front many are so far warming to the reforms made by the administration, which have been largely rewarded with above average Eurozone growth rates. New Democracy were re-elected in September 2007.
A number of other smaller political parties exist. They include the third largest party (''the Communist Party''), which still commands large support from many rural working areas as well as some of the immigrant population in Greece, as well as the far-right ''Popular Orthodox Rally'', with the latter, while commanding a mere three and a half per cent of votes, seeking to capitalise on opposition in some quarters regarding Turkey's EU accession and any tension in the Aegean. There is also a relatively small, but well organized anarchist movement, though its status in Greece has been somewhat exaggerated by media overseas.
The political process is energetically and openly participated in by the people of Greece, while public demonstrations are a continual feature of Athenian life; however, there have been criticisms of a governmental failure to sufficiently involve minorities in political debate and hence a sidelining of their opinions. In general, politics is regarded as an acceptable subject to broach on almost every social occasion, and Greeks are often very vocal about their support (or lack of it) for certain policy proposals, or political parties themselves – this is perhaps reflected in what many consider the rather sensationalist
media on both sides of the political spectrum; although this is a feature of most European tabloids.
Public holidays and festivals
According to Greek Law every Sunday of the year is a public holiday. In addition, there are four obligatory, official public holidays: March 25 (''Greek Independence Day''),
Easter Monday, August 15 (''Assumption or Dormition of the Holy Virgin'') and December 25 (''
Christmas''). Two more days, May 1 (''
Labour Day'') and October 28 (''
Ohi Day''), are regulated by law as optional but it is customary for employees to be given the day off. There are, however, more public holidays celebrated in Greece than are announced by the Ministry of Labour each year as either obligatory or optional. The list of these non-fixed National Holidays rarely changes and has not changed in recent decades, giving a total of eleven National Holidays each year.
In addition to the National Holidays, there Public Holidays that are not celebrated nationwide, but only by a specific professional group or a local community. For example, many municipalities have a "Patron Saint", also called "Name Day", or a "Liberation Day", and at this day is customary for schools to have a day off.
Notable festivals include
Patras Carnival,
Athens Festival
Athens – Epidaurus Festival is an annual arts festival that takes place in Athens and Epidaurus, from May to October. It is one of the most famous festivals in Greece. The festival includes musical, theatrical and other cultural events.
History ...
and various local wine festivals. The city of
Thessaloniki is also home of a number of festivals and events. The
Thessaloniki International Film Festival
The Thessaloniki International Film Festival (TIFF), organized by the cultural institution of the same name under the auspices of the Greek Ministry of Culture, is held every November in Thessaloniki.TIFF features international competition sect ...
is one of the most important film festivals in
Southern Europe
Southern Europe is the southern region of Europe. It is also known as Mediterranean Europe, as its geography is essentially marked by the Mediterranean Sea. Definitions of Southern Europe include some or all of these countries and regions: Alb ...
,
Thessaloniki International Film Festival – Profile
(in Greek)
Religion
Ancient Greece
Classical Athens may be suggested to have heralded some of the same religious ideas that would later be promoted by Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global popula ...
, such as Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
's invocation of a perfect God, and Heraclitus
Heraclitus of Ephesus (; grc-gre, Ἡράκλειτος , "Glory of Hera"; ) was an ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from the city of Ephesus, which was then part of the Persian Empire.
Little is known of Heraclitus's life. He wrot ...
' Logos
''Logos'' (, ; grc, λόγος, lógos, lit=word, discourse, or reason) is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric and refers to the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. Aris ...
. Plato
Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
considered there were rewards for the virtuous in the heavens and punishment for the wicked under the earth; the soul was valued more highly than the material body, and the material world was understood to be imperfect and not fully real (illustrated in Socrates
Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no t ...
's allegory of the cave).
Hellenistic Greece
Alexander's conquests spread classical concepts about the divine, the afterlife, and much else across the eastern Mediterranean area. Jews
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
and early Christians alike adopted the name " hades" when writing about " sheol" in Greek. Greco-Buddhism was the cultural syncretism between Hellenistic culture
In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in ...
and Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
, which developed in the Indo-Greek Kingdoms. By the advent of Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global popula ...
, the four original patriarchates beyond Rome used Greek as their church language.
Byzantine and Modern Greece
The Greek Orthodox Church, largely because of the importance of Byzantium in Greek history, as well as its role in the revolution, is a major institution in modern Greece. Its roles in society and larger role in overarching Greek culture are very important; a number of Greeks attend Church at least once a month or more and the Orthodox Easter
Easter,Traditional names for the feast in English are "Easter Day", as in the '' Book of Common Prayer''; "Easter Sunday", used by James Ussher''The Whole Works of the Most Rev. James Ussher, Volume 4'') and Samuel Pepys''The Diary of Samue ...
holiday holds special significance.
The Church of Greece
The Church of Greece ( el, Ἐκκλησία τῆς Ἑλλάδος, Ekklēsía tē̂s Helládos, ), part of the wider Greek Orthodox Church, is one of the autocephalous churches which make up the communion of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. It ...
also retains limited political influence through the fact the Greek constitution does not have an explicit separation of Church and State; a debate suggested by more conservative elements of the church in the early 2000s about identification cards and whether religious affiliation might be added to them highlights the friction between state and church on some issues; the proposal unsurprisingly was not accepted. A widely publicised set of corruption scandals in 2004 implicating a small group of senior churchmen also increased national debate on introducing a greater transparency to the church-state relationship.
Greek Orthodox Churches dot both the villages and towns of Greece and come in a variety of architectural forms, from older Byzantine churches, to more modern white brick churches, to newer cathedral-like structures with evident Byzantine influence. Greece (as well as Cyprus), also polled as, ostensibly, one of the most religious countries in Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
, according to Eurostat; however, while the church has wide respect as a moral and cultural institution, a contrast in religious belief with Protestant northern Europe is more obvious than one with Catholic Mediterranean Europe.
Greece also has a significant minority of Muslims in Western Thrace (numbering around 100–150,000), with their places of worship guaranteed since the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. The Greek state has fully approved the construction a main mosque for the more recent Muslim community of Athens
Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates a ...
under the freedom of religion
Freedom of religion or religious liberty is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance. It also includes the freedo ...
provisions of the Greek constitution.
Other religious communities living in Greece include Roman Catholics, Jehovah's Witnesses, Protestants, Armenians
Armenians ( hy, հայեր, ''hayer'' ) are an ethnic group native to the Armenian highlands of Western Asia. Armenians constitute the main population of Armenia and the ''de facto'' independent Artsakh. There is a wide-ranging diaspora ...
, followers of the ancient Greek religion (see Hellenism), Jews
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
and others.
Sports
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders wi ...
has risen to prominence in a number of sporting areas in recent decades. Football in particular has seen a rapid transformation, with the Greece national football team winning the 2004 UEFA European Football Championship. Many Greek athletes have also achieved significant success and have won world and olympic titles in numerous sports during the years, such as basketball
Basketball is a team sport in which two teams, most commonly of five players each, opposing one another on a rectangular Basketball court, court, compete with the primary objective of #Shooting, shooting a basketball (ball), basketball (appr ...
, wrestling
Wrestling is a series of combat sports involving grappling-type techniques such as clinch fighting, throws and takedowns, joint locks, pins and other grappling holds. Wrestling techniques have been incorporated into martial arts, combat s ...
, water polo, athletics
Athletics may refer to:
Sports
* Sport of athletics, a collection of sporting events that involve competitive running, jumping, throwing, and walking
** Track and field, a sub-category of the above sport
* Athletics (physical culture), competi ...
, weightlifting, with many of them becoming international stars inside their sports. The successful organisation of the Athens 2004 Olympic and Paralympic Games led also to the further development of many sports and has led to the creation of many World class sport venues all over Greece and especially in Athens
Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates a ...
and Thessaloniki. Greek athletes have won a total 146 medals for Greece in 15 different Olympic sports at the Summer Olympic Games, including the Intercalated Games, an achievement which makes Greece one of the top nations globally, in the world's rankings of medals per capita.
Symbols
The national colours of Greece are blue and white. The coat of arms of Greece consists of a white cross on a blue escutcheon which is surrounded by two laurel branches. The Flag of Greece is also blue and white, as defined by Law 851/1978 ''Regarding the National Flag''. It specifies the colour of "cyan" (Greek: κυανό, ''kyano''), meaning "blue", so the shade of blue is ambiguous.
The Order of the Redeemer and military decoration Cross of Valour both have ribbons in the national colours.
Since it was first established, the national emblem has undergone many changes in shape and in design. The original Greek national emblem depicted the goddess Athena
Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft who was later syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarded as the patron and protectress of v ...
and an owl. At the time of Ioannis Kapodistrias, the phoenix, the symbol of rebirth, was added.
Other recognizable symbols include the (throughout the Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
) double-headed eagle
In heraldry and vexillology, the double-headed eagle (or double-eagle) is a charge associated with the concept of Empire. Most modern uses of the symbol are directly or indirectly associated with its use by the late Byzantine Empire, origi ...
and the Vergina Sun.
See also
* Art in modern Greece
* Center for the Greek Language
The Center for the Greek Language ( el, Κέντρον Ελληνικής Γλώσσας) is a cultural and educational organization which aims to promote the Greek language and culture. It was founded in 1994. The center is based in Thessaloniki ...
* Cinema of Cyprus
Cypriot cinema refers to the cinema of Cyprus, which was born much later than the cinema of most other countries.
Notable productions
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, George Filis produced and directed ''Gregoris Afxentiou'', ''Etsi Prodoth ...
* Gaida
* Greek Orthodox Church
* Hellenic Foundation for Culture
The Hellenic Foundation for Culture (HFC; el, Ελληνικό Ίδρυμα Πολιτισμού), founded in 1992, is a cultural and educational organization, based in Athens, which aims to promote Greek language and Greek culture. Professor Io ...
* Hellenistic period
In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in ...
* Hellenization
* List of Greek films
A ''list'' is any set of items in a row. List or lists may also refer to:
People
* List (surname)
Organizations
* List College, an undergraduate division of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America
* SC Germania List, German rugby union ...
* List of universities in Greece
* Modern Greek folklore
* Paideia
* Syncretism in Ancient Greece
References
Works cited
*
*
*
Further reading
* Bruce Thornton
Bruce S. Thornton (born August 2, 1953) is an American classicist at California State University, Fresno, and research fellow at Stanford University's Hoover Institution.
Biography
Thornton received a Bachelor of Arts in Latin from the Univers ...
, ''Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization'', Encounter Books, 2002
*
* Simon Goldhill
Simon David Goldhill, FBA (born 17 March 1957) is Professor in Greek literature and culture and fellow and Director of Studies in Classics at King's College, Cambridge. He was previously Director of Centre for Research in the Arts, Social Sci ...
, ''Who Needs Greek?: Contests in the Cultural History of Hellenism'', Cambridge University Press, 2002
* Victor Davis Hanson, John Heath, ''Who Killed Homer: The Demise of Classical Education and the Recovery of Greek Wisdom'', Encounter Books, 2001
External links
Hellenism Network - Greek Culture
''Sketch of the History of Greek Literature from the Earliest Times to the Reign of Alexander the Great'' by William Smith
''Anagnosis Books Modern Greek Culture Pages''
* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20060713074229/http://www.seve.gr/sevedetrop/defaulten.htm The Greek diet and its relationship to health
Greece a cultural profile
{{DEFAULTSORT:Culture Of Greece
Greek