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''Gemeinschaft'' () and ''Gesellschaft'' (), generally translated as "
community A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as place, norms, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, t ...
and
society A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Soc ...
", are categories which were used by the
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...
sociologist
Ferdinand Tönnies Ferdinand Tönnies (; 26 July 1855 – 9 April 1936) was a German sociologist, economist, and philosopher. He was a significant contributor to sociological theory and field studies, best known for distinguishing between two types of social g ...
in order to categorize
social relationships A social relation or also described as a social interaction or social experience is the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences, and describes any voluntary or involuntary interpersonal relationship between two or more individuals ...
into two types. The Gesellschaft is associated with modern society and rational self-interest, which weakens the traditional bonds of family and local community that typify the Gemeinschaft.
Max Weber Maximilian Karl Emil Weber (; ; 21 April 186414 June 1920) was a German sociologist, historian, jurist and political economist, who is regarded as among the most important theorists of the development of modern Western society. His ideas p ...
, a founding figure in sociology, also wrote extensively about the relationship between ''Gemeinschaft'' and ''Gesellschaft''. Weber wrote in direct response to Tönnies.


''Gemeinschaft''–''Gesellschaft'' dichotomy

According to the dichotomy, social ties can be categorized, on one hand, as belonging to personal
social interaction A social relation or also described as a social interaction or social experience is the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences, and describes any voluntary or involuntary interpersonal relationship between two or more individuals ...
s, and the roles, values, and beliefs based on such interactions (''Gemeinschaft'', German, commonly translated as "
community A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as place, norms, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, t ...
"), or on the other hand as belonging to indirect interactions, impersonal roles, formal values, and beliefs based on such interactions (''Gesellschaft'', German, commonly translated as
society A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Soc ...
as in association, corporation, including company, modern
state State may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Literature * ''State Magazine'', a monthly magazine published by the U.S. Department of State * ''The State'' (newspaper), a daily newspaper in Columbia, South Carolina, United States * ''Our S ...
and academia). The ''Gemeinschaft–Gesellschaft''
dichotomy A dichotomy is a partition of a whole (or a set) into two parts (subsets). In other words, this couple of parts must be * jointly exhaustive: everything must belong to one part or the other, and * mutually exclusive: nothing can belong simul ...
was proposed by Tönnies as a purely conceptual tool rather than as an
ideal type Ideal type (german: Idealtypus), also known as pure type, is a typological term most closely associated with sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920). For Weber, the conduct of social science depends upon the construction of abstract, hypothetical con ...
in the way it was used by
Max Weber Maximilian Karl Emil Weber (; ; 21 April 186414 June 1920) was a German sociologist, historian, jurist and political economist, who is regarded as among the most important theorists of the development of modern Western society. His ideas p ...
to accentuate the key elements of a historic/social change. Tönnies was a
Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes ( ; 5/15 April 1588 – 4/14 December 1679) was an English philosopher, considered to be one of the founders of modern political philosophy. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book '' Leviathan'', in which he expounds an influ ...
scholarhe edited the standard modern editions of Hobbes's ''The Elements of Law'' and ''Leviathan''. It was his study of Hobbes that encouraged Tönnies to devote himself wholly to the
philosophy of history Philosophy of history is the philosophical study of history and its discipline. The term was coined by French philosopher Voltaire. In contemporary philosophy a distinction has developed between ''speculative'' philosophy of history and ''crit ...
and the
philosophy of law Philosophy of law is a branch of philosophy that examines the nature of law and law's relationship to other systems of norms, especially ethics and political philosophy. It asks questions like "What is law?", "What are the criteria for legal val ...
. And it has been argued that he derived both categories from Hobbes's concepts of "concord" and "union". The second edition, published in 1912, of the work in which Tönnies further promoted the concepts turned out to be an unexpected but lasting success after the first edition was published in 1887 with the subtitle "Treatise on Communism and Socialism as Empirical Patterns of Culture". Seven more German editions followed, the last in 1935, and it became part of the general stock of ideas with which pre-1933 German intellectuals were quite familiar. The book sparked a revival of
corporatist Corporatism is a collectivist political ideology which advocates the organization of society by corporate groups, such as agricultural, labour, military, business, scientific, or guild associations, on the basis of their common interests. The ...
thinking, including the rise of
neo-medievalism Neo-medievalism (or neomedievalism, new medievalism) is a term with a long history that has acquired specific technical senses in two branches of scholarship. In political theory about modern international relations, where the term is originally ...
, the rise of support for
guild socialism Guild socialism is a political movement advocating workers' control of industry through the medium of trade-related guilds "in an implied contractual relationship with the public". It originated in the United Kingdom and was at its most influent ...
, and caused major changes in the field of sociology.Peter F. Klarén, Thomas J. Bossert. ''Promise of development: theories of change in Latin America''. Boulder, Colorado, USA: Westview Press, 1986. P. 221. The distinction between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft was a large part of the discussion and debate about what constitutes community, among heavily influenced social theorists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century such as
Georg Simmel Georg Simmel (; ; 1 March 1858 – 26 September 1918) was a German sociologist, philosopher, and critic. Simmel was influential in the field of sociology. Simmel was one of the first generation of German sociologists: his neo-Kantian approac ...
,
Émile Durkheim David Émile Durkheim ( or ; 15 April 1858 – 15 November 1917) was a French sociologist. Durkheim formally established the academic discipline of sociology and is commonly cited as one of the principal architects of modern social science, al ...
and
Max Weber Maximilian Karl Emil Weber (; ; 21 April 186414 June 1920) was a German sociologist, historian, jurist and political economist, who is regarded as among the most important theorists of the development of modern Western society. His ideas p ...
. The concepts ''Gemeinschaft'' and ''Gesellschaft'' were also used by Max Weber in ''Economy and Society'', which was first published in 1921. Weber wrote in direct response to Tönnies,Weber 1968, p. 4, and 40-43. and argued that ''Gemeinschaft'' is rooted in a "subjective feeling" that may be "affectual or traditional". ''Gesellschaft''-based relationships, according to Weber, are rooted in "rational agreement by mutual consent", the best example of which is a commercial contract. To emphasize the fluidity and amorphousness of the relationship between ''Gemeinschaft'' and ''Gesellschaft'', Weber modified the terms in German to ''Vergemeinschaftung'', and ''Vergesellschaftung'', which are the
gerund In linguistics, a gerund ( abbreviated ) is any of various nonfinite verb forms in various languages; most often, but not exclusively, one that functions as a noun. In English, it has the properties of both verb and noun, such as being modifiab ...
forms of the German words. Weber's distinction between ''Gemeinschaft'' and ''Gesellschaft'' is highlighted in the essay "Classes, Stände, Parties", which is the basis for Weber's
three-component theory of stratification The three-component theory of stratification, More widely known as Weberian stratification or the three class system, was developed by German sociologist Max Weber with class, status and party as distinct ideal types. Weber developed a multidime ...
. Having put forward his conception of the ''Gemeinschaft''–''Gesellschaft'' dichotomy, Tönnies was drawn into a sharp polemic with
Émile Durkheim David Émile Durkheim ( or ; 15 April 1858 – 15 November 1917) was a French sociologist. Durkheim formally established the academic discipline of sociology and is commonly cited as one of the principal architects of modern social science, al ...
. In a review of Tönnies's book in 1889, Durkheim interpreted ''Gemeinschaft'' as having
mechanical solidarity In sociology, mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity are the two types of social solidarity that were formulated by Émile Durkheim, introduced in his ''Division of Labour in Society'' (1893) as part of his theory on the development of societ ...
, and ''Gesellschaft'' as having
organic solidarity In sociology, mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity are the two types of social solidarity that were formulated by Émile Durkheim, introduced in his '' Division of Labour in Society'' (1893) as part of his theory on the development of soc ...
, reproaching Tönnies for considering the second type of social organisation artificial and not expanding on the transition from the one type to the other. Durkheim stated that Tönnies's approach to understanding ''Gesellschaft'' was "completely ideological" but that "one cannot fail to recognize in this book truly forceful thinking and an uncommon power of organization." Tönnies did not agree with Durkheim's interpretation of his views, and in turn, when reviewing Durkheim's ''
The Division of Labour in Society ''The Division of Labour in Society'' (french: De la division du travail social) is the doctoral dissertation of the French sociologist Émile Durkheim, published in 1893. It was influential in advancing sociological theories and thought, with ...
'' (1896), wrote that Durkheim failed to deal critically enough with the division of labor and that Durkheim's whole sociology was a modification of Spencer's (who had his own dichotomy between what he called the "militant society" and the "industrial society"). In World War I propaganda self-sacrificing (virtuous) women were portrayed as the heart of the ''
Gemeinschaft ''Gemeinschaft'' () and ''Gesellschaft'' (), generally translated as " community and society", are categories which were used by the German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies in order to categorize social relationships into two types. The Gesellscha ...
'' by providing the model for the dutiful wartime home maker supporting the war effort by sending their men (husbands and sons) to serve in the war, and maintaining the
home A home, or domicile, is a space used as a permanent or semi-permanent residence for one or many humans, and sometimes various companion animals. It is a fully or semi sheltered space and can have both interior and exterior aspects to it. ...
in their absence. (In the wartime propaganda this "virtuous woman" was an ideal contrasted to less desirable archetypes that was presented as immoral or unethical women).


Globalization

Eric Hobsbawm Eric John Ernest Hobsbawm (; 9 June 1917 – 1 October 2012) was a British historian of the rise of industrial capitalism, socialism and nationalism. A life-long Marxist, his socio-political convictions influenced the character of his work. ...
argued that, as
globalization Globalization, or globalisation (Commonwealth English; see spelling differences), is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide. The term ''globalization'' first appeared in the early 20t ...
turns the entire planet into an increasingly remote kind of ''Gesellschaft'', so too collective
identity politics Identity politics is a political approach wherein people of a particular race, nationality, religion, gender, sexual orientation, social background, social class, or other identifying factors develop political agendas that are based upon these i ...
seeks for a fictitious remaking of the qualities of ''Gemeinschaft'' by artificially reforging group bonds and identities.Eric Hobsbawm, ''Globalisation, Democracy and Terrorism'' (2007), p. 93.
Fredric Jameson Fredric Jameson (born April 14, 1934) is an American literary critic, philosopher and Marxist political theorist. He is best known for his analysis of contemporary cultural trends, particularly his analysis of postmodernity and capitalism. Jam ...
highlights the ambivalent envy felt by those constructed by ''Gesellschaft'' for remaining enclaves of ''Gemeinschaft'', even as they inevitably corrode their existence.M. Hardt/K. Weeks ed., ''The Jameson Reader'' (2000) p. 145


Outside sociology

In
business Business is the practice of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services). It is also "any activity or enterprise entered into for profit." Having a business name does not separ ...
usage, ''Gesellschaft'' is the German term for "
company A company, abbreviated as co., is a legal entity representing an association of people, whether natural, legal or a mixture of both, with a specific objective. Company members share a common purpose and unite to achieve specific, declared ...
", as in ''
Aktiengesellschaft (; abbreviated AG, ) is a German word for a corporation limited by share ownership (i.e. one which is owned by its shareholders) whose shares may be traded on a stock market. The term is used in Germany, Austria, Switzerland (where it is equ ...
'' or ''
Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung A ''Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung'' (, abbreviated GmbH and also GesmbH in Austria; ) is a type of legal entity common in Germany, Austria, Switzerland (where it is equivalent to a '' société à responsabilité limitée''), and Liec ...
'' (''GmbH''). "Gemeinschaft" is used to identify groups which have or are claimed to have a more "mutual" element of affective loyalty. One important usage is in the German name for the
European Economic Community The European Economic Community (EEC) was a regional organization created by the Treaty of Rome of 1957,Today the largely rewritten treaty continues in force as the ''Treaty on the functioning of the European Union'', as renamed by the Lis ...
, ''Europäische Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft''. The German phrase for "mutual insurance company" includes both words, "mutual" and "company." In the 1980s, the Frankenmuth Mutual Insurance Company, headquartered in the German-American city of Frankenmuth, Michigan, released various promotional items such as matchbooks, featuring, in a traditional German Fraktur font, a translation of their company's name, "Frankenmuth Gemeinschafts Versicherungs Gesellschaft."


Latest edition

* ''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft. 1880-1935.'', hrsg. v. Bettina Clausen und Dieter Haselbach, De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2019 (Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe, Band 2).


See also

*
Antipositivism In social science, antipositivism (also interpretivism, negativism or antinaturalism) is a theoretical stance that proposes that the social realm cannot be studied with the methods of investigation utilized within the natural sciences, and that ...
*
Collaborative innovation network Collaborative innovation is a process in which multiple players contribute towards creating new products with customers and suppliers. Collaboration can occur in all aspects of the business cycle, depending on the context: * Procurement and suppl ...
*
Mechanical and organic solidarity In sociology, mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity are the two types of social solidarity that were formulated by Émile Durkheim, introduced in his ''Division of Labour in Society'' (1893) as part of his theory on the development of societ ...
*
Normal type Normal type (in German: ''Normaltyp'') is a typological term in sociology coined by the German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936). It can be considered both as a forerunner of, and a challenge to, the rather better known concept of M ...
*
Reflexivity (social theory) In epistemology, and more specifically, the sociology of knowledge, reflexivity refers to circular relationships between cause and effect, especially as embedded in human belief structures. A reflexive relationship is bidirectional with both the ...
*
Social action In sociology, social action, also known as Weberian social action, is an act which takes into account the actions and reactions of individuals (or ' agents'). According to Max Weber, "Action is 'social' insofar as its subjective meaning takes ...
*
Structure and agency In the social sciences there is a standing debate over the primacy of structure or agency in shaping human behaviour. ''Structure'' is the recurrent patterned arrangements which influence or limit the choices and opportunities available. ''Agency' ...
* ''
Verstehen ''Verstehen'' (, ), in the context of German philosophy and social sciences in general, has been used since the late 19th century – in English as in German – with the particular sense of the "interpretive or participatory" examination of soci ...
'' * ''
Volksgemeinschaft ''Volksgemeinschaft'' () is a German expression meaning "people's community", "folk community", Richard Grunberger, ''A Social History of the Third Reich'', London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971, p. 44. "national community", or "racial community", ...
''


Notes


References

* Ferdinand Tönnies (ed. Jose Harris), ''Community and Civil Society'', Cambridge University Press (2001), hardcover, 266 pages, ; trade paperback, Cambridge University Press (2001), 266 pages, *Ferdinand Tönnies, '' Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe'' , critical edition, 24 vols., tom. II (forthcoming), ed.
Lars Clausen Lars Michael Clausen (8 April 1935, Berlin – 20 May 2010, Hamburg) was a German sociologist and professor at the University of Kiel. Life and work During World War II, the family lived on the Darß (in Pomerania). 1944 his father Jürgen C ...
,
Alexander Deichsel Alexander Deichsel (born 23 February 1935) is a German sociologist and professor at the University of Hamburg (Germany). Deichsel completed his abitur at the Christianeum Hamburg. He is the founder of sociology of brand ( Markensoziologie) and ...
et al., Berlin/New York (de Gruyter): 1998– ), ''see'' external weblin
Verlagsinformationen
*Waters, Tony, and Waters Dagmar. "The new Zeppelin University translation of Weber's 'Class, Status, Party'" Journal of Classical Sociology'' 10.2 (2010): 153-158. *Weber, Max "The distribution of power within the community: Classes, Stände, Parties." Journal of classical sociology 468-795XWaters, Dagmar, et al. 2010 vol:10 iss:2 pg:137 -152 *Weber, Max. ''Economy and Society'', ed. Guenter Roth and Claus Wittich. University of California Press (1921/1968/1978). *Weber, Max. ''Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society: New Translations on Politics, Bureaucracy, and Social Stratification'', ed. and trans. Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters. New York: Palsgrave Macmillan. *
Emile Durkheim Emil or Emile may refer to: Literature *''Emile, or On Education'' (1762), a treatise on education by Jean-Jacques Rousseau * ''Émile'' (novel) (1827), an autobiographical novel based on Émile de Girardin's early life *''Emil and the Detective ...
. A review of Ferdinand Tönnies' Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft. *: Joan Aldous, Emile Durkheim and Ferdinand Tonnies
An Exchange Between Durkheim and Tonnies on the Nature of Social Relations, with an Introduction by Joan Aldous
//
American Journal of Sociology The ''American Journal of Sociology'' is a peer-reviewed bi-monthly academic journal that publishes original research and book reviews in the field of sociology and related social sciences. It was founded in 1895 as the first journal in its disc ...
Vol. 77, No. 6 (May, 1972), pp. 1191-1200. {{Authority control Community Community building German words and phrases Identity politics Social psychology Social concepts Sociological terminology no:Gemeinschaft nn:Gemeinschaft pl:Wspólnota