The ''Feriale Duranum'' is a calendar of religious observances for a Roman military garrison at

Dura-Europos Dura-Europos, ; la, Dūra Eurōpus, ( el, Δούρα Ευρωπός, Doúra Evropós, ) was a Hellenistic, Parthian, and Roman border city built on an escarpment above the southwestern bank of the Euphrates river. It is located near the vil ...

on the

Euphrates The Euphrates () is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia ( ''the land between the rivers''). Originating in Turkey, the Eup ...

, Roman Syria, under the reign of

Severus Alexander Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander (1 October 208 – 21/22 March 235) was a Roman emperor, who reigned from 222 until 235. He was the last emperor from the Severan dynasty. He succeeded his slain cousin Elagabalus in 222. Alexander himself was ...

(224–235 AD).

History and description

The small

papyrus Papyrus ( ) is a material similar to thick paper that was used in ancient times as a writing surface. It was made from the pith of the papyrus plant, '' Cyperus papyrus'', a wetland sedge. ''Papyrus'' (plural: ''papyri'') can also refer to a ...

roll was discovered among the documents of an

auxiliary Auxiliary may refer to: * A backup site or system In language * Auxiliary language (disambiguation) * Auxiliary verb In military and law enforcement * Auxiliary police * Auxiliaries, civilians or quasi-military personnel who provide support of ...

cohort Cohort or cohortes may refer to: * Cohort (educational group), a group of students working together through the same academic curriculum * Cohort (floating point), a set of different encodings of the same numerical value * Cohort (military unit ...

, the '' Cohors XX Palmyrenorum'' (Twentieth Cohort of Palmyrenes), in the Temple of Azzanathkona. The calendar, written in

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...

, is arranged in four columns, with some gaps. It offers important evidence for the religious life of the Roman military and the role of

Imperial cult An imperial cult is a form of state religion in which an emperor or a dynasty of emperors (or rulers of another title) are worshipped as demigods or deities. "Cult" here is used to mean "worship", not in the modern pejorative sense. The cult may ...

in promoting loyalty to the Roman emperor, and for the coexistence of Roman state religion and local religious traditions.

Festivals A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival c ...

named include

Quinquatria In ancient Roman religion, the Quinquatria or Quinquatrus was a festival sacred to the Goddess Minerva, celebrated from the 19–23 of March. The older festivals were of Etruscan origin and were to celebrate the Spring equinox, the spring rebirt ...

(a purification of arms), the birthday of Rome,

Neptunalia The Neptunalia was an obscure archaic two-day festival in honor of Neptune as god of waters, celebrated at Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus ( legendary) , image_map ...

and two Rosaliae at which the military standards were adorned with roses. The calendar prescribes sacrifices for deities of traditional Roman religion such as the

Capitoline triad The Capitoline Triad was a group of three deities who were worshipped in ancient Roman religion in an elaborate temple on Rome's Capitoline Hill (Latin ''Capitolium''). It comprised Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The triad held a central place in th ...

Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined, but slightly less than one-thousandth t ...

Juno Juno commonly refers to: *Juno (mythology), the Roman goddess of marriage and queen of the gods *Juno (film), ''Juno'' (film), 2007 Juno may also refer to: Arts, entertainment and media Fictional characters *Juno, in the film ''Jenny, Juno'' *Ju ...

, and

Minerva Minerva (; ett, Menrva) is the Roman goddess of wisdom, justice, law, victory, and the sponsor of arts, trade, and strategy. Minerva is not a patron of violence such as Mars, but of strategic war. From the second century BC onward, the Rom ...

, as well as

Mars Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, only being larger than Mercury. In the English language, Mars is named for the Roman god of war. Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin at ...

and Vesta. About twenty members of the imperial family are honored as '' divi'', divinized mortals, including six women and Germanicus, who was never an emperor. Twenty-seven of the forty-three entries that remain legible pertain to Imperial cult. No Eastern

mystery religions Mystery religions, mystery cults, sacred mysteries or simply mysteries, were religious schools of the Greco-Roman world for which participation was reserved to initiates ''(mystai)''. The main characterization of this religion is the secrecy a ...

, which were widely celebrated in the Empire during this period, nor local cults are recorded as an official observance of the army, but the ''feriale'' was found in the temple with a dipinto depicting a Roman officer offering incense to the local deity Iarḥibol, and Romans, including a standard-bearer with the cohort's ''

vexillum The ''vexillum'' (; plural ''vexilla'') was a flag-like object used as a military standard by units in the Ancient Roman army. Use in Roman army The word ''vexillum'' is a derivative of the Latin word, ''velum'', meaning a sail, which co ...

'', standing before the altar of the Syrian gods Iarḥibol,

Aglibol Aglibol is a god from Palmyra, originating from a north Syrian immigrant community. He is a moon god who was worshiped in the ancient Syrian city of Palmyra as part of a trinity alongside Bel and Yarhibol, and associated with the sun god Malakbe ...

and Arṣu. It has also been argued that the three gods represent the emperors

Pupienus Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus ( 168 238 AD) was Roman emperor with Balbinus for 99 days in 238, during the Year of the Six Emperors. The sources for this period are scant, and thus knowledge of the emperor is limited. In most contemporary t ...

Balbinus Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus (died 238 AD) was Roman emperor with Pupienus for three months in 238, the Year of the Six Emperors. Origins and career Not much is known about Balbinus before his elevation to emperor. It has been conjec ...

, and Gordian III. A copy of the calendar may have been issued to each unit throughout the Empire to further military cohesion as well as Roman identity among troops from other cultures. (especially note 126), 146. The cache of documents was discovered by a team of archaeologists from

Yale University Yale University is a Private university, private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the List of Colonial Colleges, third-oldest institution of higher education in the United Sta ...

working at Dura-Europos in 1931–32. It was first published by R. O. Fink, A. S. Hooey, and Walter Fifield Snyder (1940), "The ''Feriale Duranum''," ''Yale Classical Studies'' 7: 1–222.

Partial list of festivals

In 2011, a facsimile of the partial document was part of the Dura-Europos exhibition at Boston College, and it contained the following translation: * March 19,

, a supplication; until March 23, supplications * April 4, for the birthday of Antonius Magnus, an ox * April 9, for the accession of the deified Pius Severus, an ox * April 11, for the birthday of Pius Severus, an ox * April 21, for the birthday of the Eternal City of

Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus (legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...

, a cow * April 26, for the birthday of Marcus Antoninus, an ox * May 7, for the birthday of the deified

Julia Maesa Julia Maesa (7 May before 160 AD – AD) was a member of the Severan dynasty of the Roman Empire who was the grandmother of emperors Elagabalus and Severus Alexander, elder sister of empress Julia Domna, and mother of Julia Soaemias and Julia ...

, a supplication * May 10 (?), for the Rose-festival of the Standards, a supplication * May 12, for the circus-races in honor of

, to Mars Ultor, a bull * May 21, because the deified Pius Severus was saluted as "imperator" * May 24, for the birthday of

Germanicus Caesar Germanicus Julius Caesar (24 May 15 BC – 10 October AD 19) was an ancient Roman general, known for his campaigns in Germania. The son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia the Younger, Germanicus was born into an influential branch of the patri ...

, a supplication * May 31, for the Rose-festival of the Standards, a supplication * June 9, for the Vestalia, to Vesta Mater, a supplication * June 26, because our lord

Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander (1 October 208 – 21/22 March 235) was a Roman emperor, who reigned from 222 until 235. He was the last emperor from the Severan dynasty. He succeeded his slain cousin Elagabalus in 222. Alexander himself was ...

was named Caesar, a bull * July 1, because our lord

our Augustus was designated consul for the first time, a supplication * July 4, for the birthday of the deified Matidia, a supplication * July 10, for the succession of the deified

Antoninus Pius Antoninus Pius ( Latin: ''Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius''; 19 September 86 – 7 March 161) was Roman emperor from 138 to 161. He was the fourth of the Five Good Emperors from the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. Born into a senatori ...

, an ox * July 12, for the birthday of the deified

Julius The gens Julia (''gēns Iūlia'', ) was one of the most prominent patrician families in ancient Rome. Members of the gens attained the highest dignities of the state in the earliest times of the Republic. The first of the family to obtain the ...

, an ox * July 23, for the day of the

, a supplication and a sacrifice * Aug 1, for the birthday of the deified Claudius and the deified

Pertinax Publius Helvius Pertinax (; 1 August 126 – 28 March 193) was Roman emperor for the first three months of 193. He succeeded Commodus to become the first emperor during the tumultuous Year of the Five Emperors. Born the son of a freed slav ...

, an ox and an ox * Aug 5, for the circus-races in honor of

Salus Salus ( la, salus, "safety", "salvation", "welfare") was the Roman goddess of safety and well-being (welfare, health and prosperity) of both the individual and the state. She is sometimes equated with the Greek goddess Hygieia, though their fu ...

, a cow. * Aug 4-29 for the birthday of Mamaea Augusta, mother of Augustus, a cow * Aug 5-30 for the birthday of the deified

Marciana Marciana is a town and ''comune'' in the province of Livorno, Tuscany (Italy), located in the western Elba Elba ( it, isola d'Elba, ; la, Ilva) is a Mediterranean island in Tuscany, Italy, from the coastal town of Piombino on the Italian ma ...

, a supplication

Gallery of those named

Emperors

Claudius crop.jpg, Claudius Marcus Aurelius Louvre MR561 n02.jpg,

Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Latin: áːɾkus̠ auɾέːli.us̠ antɔ́ːni.us̠ English: ; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known as the Five Good ...

Antoninus_Pius_Glyptothek_Munich_337_Detail.jpg,

File:Alba_Iulia_National_Museum_of_the_Union_2011_-_Possible_Statue_of_Roman_Emperor_Pertinax_Close_Up,_Apulum.JPG,

Septimius Severus Glyptothek Munich 357.jpg,

Septimius Severus Lucius Septimius Severus (; 11 April 145 – 4 February 211) was Roman emperor from 193 to 211. He was born in Leptis Magna (present-day Al-Khums, Libya) in the Roman province of Africa. As a young man he advanced through the customary suc ...

Caracalla.jpg,

Caracalla Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (born Lucius Septimius Bassianus, 4 April 188 – 8 April 217), better known by his nickname "Caracalla" () was Roman emperor from 198 to 217. He was a member of the Severan dynasty, the elder son of Emperor S ...

Alexander_severus.jpg,

Alexander Severus Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander (1 October 208 – 21/22 March 235) was a Roman emperor, who reigned from 222 until 235. He was the last emperor from the Severan dynasty. He succeeded his slain cousin Elagabalus in 222. Alexander himself was ...

Deities

0137 - Roma - Piazza del Campidoglio - Dea Roma - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 7-Apr-2008.jpg, Roma Statuette_of_Salus.jpg, Statue of Salus Vesta-Roma.jpg, Vesta 0_Statue_de_Mars_(Pyrrhus)_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_MC0058_(2).JPG,

(Bologna) - Fontana del Nettuno.jpg, Neptune

Other Imperials

File:Bust Julius Caesar.jpg,

Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, ...

MSR_-_Germanicus_Inv._30010.jpg, Germanicus Matidie_01.JPG, Matidia (Trajan's niece) Ulpia_Marciana_Met_20.200_n02.jpg, Ulpia Marciana (older sister of

Trajan Trajan ( ; la, Caesar Nerva Traianus; 18 September 539/11 August 117) was Roman emperor from 98 to 117. Officially declared ''optimus princeps'' ("best ruler") by the senate, Trajan is remembered as a successful soldier-emperor who presi ...

) Julia_Maesa_antoninianus_2.png, Julia Maesa (mother of J. Mamea) Julia_Avita_Mamaea_Louvre_Ma3552.jpg, Julia Mamea (mother of

)

Notes

References

* * * * *Snyder, Walter F., Fink, R.O., and Hoey, A.S., eds., ''The Feriale Duranum'' ale Classical Studies, vol. 7(New Haven:

Yale University Press Yale University Press is the university press of Yale University. It was founded in 1908 by George Parmly Day, and became an official department of Yale University in 1961, but it remains financially and operationally autonomous. , Yale Universi ...

, 1940) p. 1–221

External links

* Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Papyrus Collection
description and photographs
* Papyri.info
transcription

English translation
(erroneously labeled as "translated from the Greek" instead of Latin) {{Dura Europos Roman calendar Ancient Roman religion Military of ancient Rome Religious rituals