Distributed GIS
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Distributed GIS refers to GI Systems that do not have all of the system components in the same physical location. This could be the
processing Processing is a free graphical library and integrated development environment (IDE) built for the electronic arts, new media art, and visual design communities with the purpose of teaching non-programmers the fundamentals of computer programming ...
, the
database In computing, a database is an organized collection of data stored and accessed electronically. Small databases can be stored on a file system, while large databases are hosted on computer clusters or cloud storage. The design of databases s ...
, the rendering or the
user interface In the industrial design field of human–computer interaction, a user interface (UI) is the space where interactions between humans and machines occur. The goal of this interaction is to allow effective operation and control of the machine f ...
. It represents a special case of
distributed computing A distributed system is a system whose components are located on different networked computers, which communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages to one another from any system. Distributed computing is a field of computer sci ...
, with examples of distributed systems including
Internet GIS Internet GIS, or Internet geographic information systems, is a term that refers to a broad set of technologies and applications that employ the Internet to access, analyze, visualize, and distribute spatial data. Introduction Internet GIS is a ...
, Web GIS, and Mobile GIS. Distribution of resources provides corporate and enterprise-based models for GIS (involving multiple databases, different computers undertaking
spatial analysis Spatial analysis or spatial statistics includes any of the formal techniques which studies entities using their topological, geometric, or geographic properties. Spatial analysis includes a variety of techniques, many still in their early deve ...
and a diverse ecosystem of often spatially-enabled client devices). Distributed GIS permits a shared services model, including data fusion (or mashups) based on
Open Geospatial Consortium The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), an international voluntary consensus standards organization for geospatial content and location-based services, sensor web and Internet of Things, GIS data processing and data sharing. It originated in 199 ...
(OGC) web services. Distributed GIS technology enables modern online mapping systems (such as
Google Maps Google Maps is a web mapping platform and consumer application offered by Google. It offers satellite imagery, aerial photography, street maps, 360° interactive panoramic views of streets ( Street View), real-time traffic conditions, and rou ...
and Bing Maps),
Location-based services A location-based service (LBS) is a general term denoting software services which use geographic data and information to provide services or information to users. LBS can be used in a variety of contexts, such as health, indoor object search, ent ...
(LBS), web-based GIS (such as ArcGIS Online) and numerous map-enabled applications. Other applications include transportation,
logistics Logistics is generally the detailed organization and implementation of a complex operation. In a general business sense, logistics manages the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of consumption to meet the requirements of ...
, utilities, farm / agricultural information systems, real-time environmental information systems and the analysis of the movement of people. In terms of data, the concept has been extended to include volunteered geographical information. Distributed processing allows improvements to the performance of spatial analysis through the use of techniques such as parallel processing.


Etymology

The term Distributed GIS was coined by
Bruce Gittings The English language name Bruce arrived in Scotland with the Normans, from the place name Brix, Manche in Normandy, France, meaning "the willowlands". Initially promulgated via the descendants of king Robert the Bruce (1274−1329), it has been a ...
at the
University of Edinburgh The University of Edinburgh ( sco, University o Edinburgh, gd, Oilthigh Dhùn Èideann; abbreviated as ''Edin.'' in post-nominals) is a public research university based in Edinburgh, Scotland. Granted a royal charter by King James VI in 15 ...
. He was responsible for one of the first
Internet The Internet (or internet) is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a '' network of networks'' that consists of private, pub ...
-based distributed GIS. In 1994, he designed and implemented the World Wide Earthquake Locator, which provided maps of recent earthquake occurrences to a location-independent user, which used the
Xerox PARC PARC (Palo Alto Research Center; formerly Xerox PARC) is a research and development company in Palo Alto, California. Founded in 1969 by Jacob E. "Jack" Goldman, chief scientist of Xerox Corporation, the company was originally a division of Xero ...
mapping system (based in
California California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the m ...
, USA), managed by an interface based in Edinburgh (Scotland), which drew data in real-time from the
National Earthquake Information Center The National Earthquake Information Center (abbreviated NEIC) is part of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) located on the campus of the Colorado School of Mines in Golden, Colorado. The NEIC has three main missions: * First, the NEIC determ ...
(USGS) in
Colorado Colorado (, other variants) is a state in the Mountain states, Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It encompasses most of the Southern Rocky Mountains, as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the wes ...
, USA.
The justification for the original Earthquake Locator, an experiment in distributed internetworking, World Wide Earthquake Locator


Types


Enterprise GIS

Enterprise GIS refers to a geographical information system that integrates geographic data across multiple departments and serves the whole organisation. The basic idea of an enterprise GIS is to deal with departmental needs collectively instead of individually. When organisations started using GIS in the 1960s and 1970s, the focus was on individual projects where individual users created and maintained data sets on their own desktop computers. Due to extensive interaction and work-flow between departments, many organisations have in recent years switched from independent, stand-alone GIS systems to more integrated approaches that share resources and applications. Some of the potential benefits that an enterprise GIS can provide include significantly reduced redundancy of data across the system, improved accuracy and integrity of geographic information, and more efficient use and sharing of data.Sipes, 2005 Since data is one of the most significant investments in any GIS program, any approach that reduces acquisition costs while maintaining data quality is important. The implementation of an enterprise GIS may also reduce the overall GIS maintenance and support costs providing a more effective use of departmental GIS resources. Data can be integrated and used in decision making processes across the whole organisation.


Corporate GIS

A corporate
Geographical Information System A geographic information system (GIS) is a type of database containing geographic data (that is, descriptions of phenomena for which location is relevant), combined with software tools for managing, analyzing, and visualizing those data. In a ...
, is similar to Enterprise GIS and satisfies the spatial information needs of an organisation as a whole in an integrated manner. Corporate GIS consists of four technological elements which are
data In the pursuit of knowledge, data (; ) is a collection of discrete Value_(semiotics), values that convey information, describing quantity, qualitative property, quality, fact, statistics, other basic units of meaning, or simply sequences of sy ...
, standards,
information technology Information technology (IT) is the use of computers to create, process, store, retrieve, and exchange all kinds of Data (computing), data . and information. IT forms part of information and communications technology (ICT). An information te ...
and personnel with expertise. It is a coordinated approach that moves away from fragmented desktop GIS. The design of a corporate GIS includes the construction of a centralised corporate
database In computing, a database is an organized collection of data stored and accessed electronically. Small databases can be stored on a file system, while large databases are hosted on computer clusters or cloud storage. The design of databases s ...
that is designed to be the principle resource for an entire organisation. The corporate database is specifically designed to efficiently and effectively suit the requirements of the organisation. Essential to a corporate GIS is the effective management of the corporate database and the establishment of standards such as OGC for mapping and database technologies. Benefits include that all the users in the organisation have access to shared, complete, accurate, high quality and up-to-date data. All the users in the organisation also have access to shared technology and people with expertise. This improves the efficiency and effectiveness of the organisation as a whole. A successfully managed corporate database reduces redundant collection and storage of information across the organisation. By centralising resources and efforts, it reduces the overall cost.


Mobile GIS

With ~80% of all data deemed to have a spatial component, modern Mobile GIS are a powerful geo-centric business process integration platform enabling the Spatial Enterprise. The number of mobile devices in circulation has surpassed the world's population (2013) with a rapid acceleration in
iOS iOS (formerly iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system created and developed by Apple Inc. exclusively for its hardware. It is the operating system that powers many of the company's mobile devices, including the iPhone; the term also include ...
, Android and
Windows 8 Windows 8 is a major release of the Windows NT operating system developed by Microsoft. It was released to manufacturing on August 1, 2012; it was subsequently made available for download via MSDN and TechNet on August 15, 2012, and later to ...
tablet up-take. Tablets are fast becoming popular for Utility field use. Low-cost MIL-STD-810 certified cases transform consumer tablets into fully ruggedised, yet lightweight field use units at 10% of legacy ruggedised laptop costs. Although not all applications of mobile GIS are limited by the device, many are. These limitations are more applicable to smaller devices such as
cell phones A mobile phone, cellular phone, cell phone, cellphone, handphone, hand phone or pocket phone, sometimes shortened to simply mobile, cell, or just phone, is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link whi ...
and PDAs. Such devices have: small screens with a poor resolution, limited memory and processing power, a poor (or no) keyboard, and short battery life. Additional limitations can be found in web client based tablet applications: poor web GUI and device integration, on-line reliance, and very limited off-line web client cache.


Location-Based Services

Location-based service A location-based service (LBS) is a general term denoting software services which use geographic data and information to provide services or information to users. LBS can be used in a variety of contexts, such as health, indoor object search, en ...
s (LBS) are services that are distributed wirelessly and provide information relevant to the user's current location. These services include such things as ‘find my nearest …’, directions, and various vehicle monitoring systems, such as the GM OnStar system amongst others. Location-based services are generally run on mobile phones and PDAs, and are intended for use by the general public more than Mobile GIS systems which are geared towards commercial enterprise. Devices can be located by triangulation using the mobile phone network and/or GPS.


Web Mapping Services

A web mapping service is a means of displaying and interacting with maps on the Web. The first web mapping service was the
Xerox PARC Map Viewer Xerox PARC Map Viewer was one of the earliest static web mapping sites, developed by Steve Putz in June 1993 at Xerox Corporation's Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). The Xerox PARC Map Viewer was an experiment in providing interactive information ...
built in 1993 and decommissioned in 2000. There have been 3 generations of
web map service A Web Map Service (WMS) is a standard protocol developed by the Open Geospatial Consortium in 1999 for serving georeferenced map images over the Internet. These images are typically produced by a map server from data provided by a GIS database. ...
. The first generation was from 1993 onwards and consisted of simple image maps which had a single click function. The second generation was from 1996 onwards and still used image maps the one click function. However, they also had zoom and pan capabilities (although slow) and could be customised through the use of the URL
API An application programming interface (API) is a way for two or more computer programs to communicate with each other. It is a type of software interface, offering a service to other pieces of software. A document or standard that describes how ...
. The third generation was from 1998 onwards and were the first to include slippy maps. They utilise
AJAX Ajax may refer to: Greek mythology and tragedy * Ajax the Great, a Greek mythological hero, son of King Telamon and Periboea * Ajax the Lesser, a Greek mythological hero, son of Oileus, the king of Locris * ''Ajax'' (play), by the ancient Gree ...
technology which enables seamless panning and zooming. They are customisable using the URL
API An application programming interface (API) is a way for two or more computer programs to communicate with each other. It is a type of software interface, offering a service to other pieces of software. A document or standard that describes how ...
and can have extended functionality programmed in using the
DOM Dom or DOM may refer to: People and fictional characters * Dom (given name), including fictional characters * Dom (surname) * Dom La Nena (born 1989), stage name of Brazilian-born cellist, singer and songwriter Dominique Pinto * Dom people, an et ...
. Web map services are based on the concept of the
image map In HTML and XHTML, an image map is a list of coordinates relating to a specific image, created in order to hyperlink areas of the image to different destinations (as opposed to a normal image link, in which the entire area of the image links to a ...
whereby this defines the area overlaying an image (e.g. GIF). An
image map In HTML and XHTML, an image map is a list of coordinates relating to a specific image, created in order to hyperlink areas of the image to different destinations (as opposed to a normal image link, in which the entire area of the image links to a ...
can be processed client or server side. As functionality is built into the web server, performance is good. Image maps can be dynamic. When image maps are used for geographic purposes, the co-ordinate system must be transformed to the geographical origin to conform to the geographical standard of having the origin at the bottom left corner. Web maps are used for
location-based service A location-based service (LBS) is a general term denoting software services which use geographic data and information to provide services or information to users. LBS can be used in a variety of contexts, such as health, indoor object search, en ...
s.


Local search

Local search is a recent approach to internet searching that incorporates geographical information into search queries so that the links that you return are more relevant to where you are. It developed out of an increasing awareness that many search engine users are using it to look for a business or service in the local area. Local search has stimulated the development of web mapping, which is used either as a tool to use in geographically restricting your search (see
Live Search Maps Bing Maps (previously Live Search Maps, Windows Live Maps, Windows Live Local, and MSN Virtual Earth) is a web mapping service provided as a part of Microsoft's Bing suite of search engines and powered by the Bing Maps Platform framework. Since 20 ...
) or as an additional resource to be returned along with search result listings (see
Google Maps Google Maps is a web mapping platform and consumer application offered by Google. It offers satellite imagery, aerial photography, street maps, 360° interactive panoramic views of streets ( Street View), real-time traffic conditions, and rou ...
). It has also led to an increase in the number of small businesses advertising on the web.


Mashups

In distributed GIS, the term mashup refers to a generic web service which combines content and functionality from disparate sources; mashups reflect a separation of information and presentation. Mashups are increasingly being used in commercial and government applications as well as in the public domain. When used in GIS, it reflects the concept of connecting an application with a mapping service. An examples is combining Google maps with
Chicago (''City in a Garden''); I Will , image_map = , map_caption = Interactive Map of Chicago , coordinates = , coordinates_footnotes = , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name ...
crime statistics to create th
Chicago crime statistics map
Mashups are fast, provide value for money and remove responsibility for the data from the creator. Second generation systems provide mashups mainly based on URL parameters, while Third generation systems (e.g. Google Maps) allow customisation via script (e.g. JavaScript).


Strategy

The development of the European Union (EU) ''Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community'' (INSPIRE) initiative indicates this is a matter that is gaining more awareness at the national and EU scale. This states that there is a need to create ‘quality geo-referenced information’ that would be useful for a better understanding of human activities on environmental processes. Therefore, it is an ambitious project that aims to develop a European spatial information database. The GI strategy for Scotland was introduced in 2005 to provide a sustainable SDI, through the ’’One Scotland – One Geography’’ implementation plan. This documentation notes that it should be able to provide linkages to the ’’Spaces, Faces and Places of Scotland’’. Although plans for a GI strategy have been in existence for some time, it was revealed at the AGI Scotland 2007 conference that a recent budget review by the Scottish Government indicated there will not be an allocation of resources to fund this initiative within the next term. Therefore, a business plan will need to be presented in order to outline the cost-benefits involved with taking up the strategy.


Standards

The main standards for Distributed GIS are provided by the
Open Geospatial Consortium The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), an international voluntary consensus standards organization for geospatial content and location-based services, sensor web and Internet of Things, GIS data processing and data sharing. It originated in 199 ...
(OGC). OGC is a non-profit international group which seeks to Web-Enable GIS and in turn Geo-Enable the web. One of the major issues concerning distributed GIS is the interoperability of the data since it can come in different formats using different projection systems. OGC standards seek to provide interoperability between data and to integrate existing data.


OGC

In terms of interoperability, the use of communication standards in Distributed GIS is particularly important. General standards for
Geospatial Geographic data and information is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as data and information having an implicit or explicit association with a location relative to Earth (a geographic location or geographic position). It is also ca ...
Data have been developed by the
Open Geospatial Consortium The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), an international voluntary consensus standards organization for geospatial content and location-based services, sensor web and Internet of Things, GIS data processing and data sharing. It originated in 199 ...
(OGC). For the exchange of Geospatial Data over the web, the most important OGC standards are
Web Map Service A Web Map Service (WMS) is a standard protocol developed by the Open Geospatial Consortium in 1999 for serving georeferenced map images over the Internet. These images are typically produced by a map server from data provided by a GIS database. ...
(WMS) and
Web Feature Service In computing, the Open Geospatial Consortium Web Feature Service (WFS) Interface Standard provides an interface allowing requests for geographical features across the web using platform-independent calls. One can think of geographical features as ...
(WFS). Using OGC compliant gateways allows for building very flexible Distributed GI Systems. Unlike monolithic GI Systems, OGC compliant systems are naturally
web-based A web application (or web app) is application software that is accessed using a web browser. Web applications are delivered on the World Wide Web to users with an active network connection. History In earlier computing models like client-serve ...
and do not have strict definitions of servers and clients. For instance, if a user (
client Client(s) or The Client may refer to: * Client (business) * Client (computing), hardware or software that accesses a remote service on another computer * Customer or client, a recipient of goods or services in return for monetary or other valuabl ...
) accesses a server, that server itself can act as a client of a number of further servers in order to retrieve data requested by the user. This concept allows for data retrieval from any number of different sources, providing consistent data standards are used. This concept allows data transfer with systems not capable of GIS functionality. A key function of OGC standards is the integration of different systems already existing and thus geo-enabling the web. Web services providing different functionality can be used simultaneously to combine data from different sources (mash-ups). Thus, different services on distributed servers can be combined for ‘service-chaining’ in order to add additional value to existing services. Providing a wide use of OGC standards by different web services, sharing distributed data of multiple organisations becomes possible. Some important languages used in OGC compliant systems are described in the following.
XML Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a markup language and file format for storing, transmitting, and reconstructing arbitrary data. It defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable ...
stands for eXtensible Markup language and is widely used for displaying and interpreting data from computers. Thus the development of a web-based GI system requires several useful XML encodings that can effectively describe two-dimensional graphics such as maps SVG and at the same time store and transfer simple features GML. Because GML and SVG are both XML encodings, it is very straightforward to convert between the two using an XML Style Language Transformation XSLT. This gives an application a means of rendering GML, and in fact is the primary way that it has been accomplished among existing applications today. XML can introduce innovative web services, in terms of GIS. It allows geographic information to be easily translated in graphic and in these terms scalar vector graphics (SVG) can produce high quality dynamic outputs by using data retrieved from spatial databases. In the same aspect Google, one of the pioneers in web-based GIS, has developed its own language which also uses a XML structure.
Keyhole Markup Language Keyhole Markup Language (KML) is an XML notation for expressing geographic annotation and visualization within two-dimensional maps and three-dimensional Earth browsers. KML was developed for use with Google Earth, which was originally named Ke ...
(KML) is a file format used to display geographic data in an earth browser, such as Google Earth, Google Maps, and Google Maps for mobile browsers


Global System for Mobile Communications

Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is a global standard for mobile phones around the world. Networks using the GSM system offer transmission of voice, data and messages in text and multimedia form and provide web, telenet, ftp, email services etc. over the mobile network. Almost two million people are now using GSM. Five main standards of GSM exist: GSM 400, GSM 850, GSM 900, GSM-1800 (DCS) and GSM1900 (PCS). GSM 850 and GSM 1900 is used in North America, parts of Latin America and parts of Africa. In Europe, Asia and Australia GSM 900/1800 standard is used. GSM consists of two components: the mobile radio telephone and
Subscriber Identity Module A typical SIM card (mini-SIM with micro-SIM cutout) A GSM mobile phone file:Simkarte NFC SecureElement.jpg, T-Mobile nano-SIM card with NFC capabilities in the SIM tray of an iPhone 6s file:Tf sim both sides.png, A TracFone Wireless SIM card ha ...
. GSM is a cellular network, which is a radio network made up of a number of cells. For each cell, the transmitter (known as a base station) is transmitting and receiving signals. The base station is controlled through the Base Station Controller via the Mobile Switching Centre. For GSM enhancement General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), a packet-oriented data service for data transmission, and
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is a third generation mobile cellular system for networks based on the GSM standard. Developed and maintained by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project), UMTS is a component of the In ...
(UTMS), the Third Generation ( 3G) mobile communication system, technology was introduced. Both provide similar services to 2G, but with greater
bandwidth Bandwidth commonly refers to: * Bandwidth (signal processing) or ''analog bandwidth'', ''frequency bandwidth'', or ''radio bandwidth'', a measure of the width of a frequency range * Bandwidth (computing), the rate of data transfer, bit rate or thr ...
and speed.


Wireless Application Protocol

Wireless Application Protocol Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a technical standard for accessing information over a mobile wireless network. A WAP browser is a web browser for mobile devices such as mobile phones that use the protocol. Introduced in 1999, WAP achieve ...
(WAP) is a standard for the data transmission of internet content and services. It is a secure specification that allows users to access the information instantly via mobile phones, pagers, two-way radios, smartphones and communicators. WAP supports
HTML The HyperText Markup Language or HTML is the standard markup language for documents designed to be displayed in a web browser. It can be assisted by technologies such as Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and scripting languages such as JavaSc ...
and
XML Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a markup language and file format for storing, transmitting, and reconstructing arbitrary data. It defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable ...
, and WML language, and is specifically designed for small screens and one-hand navigation without a keyboard. WML is scalable from two-line text displays up to the graphical screens found on smart phones. It is much stricter than HTML and is similar to
JavaScript JavaScript (), often abbreviated as JS, is a programming language that is one of the core technologies of the World Wide Web, alongside HTML and CSS. As of 2022, 98% of websites use JavaScript on the client side for webpage behavior, of ...
.


Geotagging

Geotagging is the process of adding geographical identification metadata to resources such as websites, RSS feed, images or videos. The metadata usually consist of latitude and longitude coordinates but may also include altitude, camera holding direction, place information and so on.
Flickr Flickr ( ; ) is an American image hosting and video hosting service, as well as an online community, founded in Canada and headquartered in the United States. It was created by Ludicorp in 2004 and was a popular way for amateur and profession ...
website is one of the famous web services which host photos and provides functionality to add latitude and longitude information to the picture. The main idea is to use metadata related to pictures and photo collection. A geotag is simply a properly-formed XML tag giving the geographic coordinates of a place. The coordinates can be specified in latitude and longitude or in UTM (
Universal Transverse Mercator The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) is a map projection system for assigning coordinates to locations on the surface of the Earth. Like the traditional method of latitude and longitude, it is a horizontal position representation, which means i ...
) coordinates. The RDFIG Geo vocabulary from the
W3C The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web. Founded in 1994 and led by Tim Berners-Lee, the consortium is made up of member organizations that maintain full-time staff working to ...
is the common basis for the recommendations. It supplies official global names for the latitude, longitude, and altitude properties. These are given in a system of coordinates known as "the WGS84 datum". A geographic datum specifies an ellipsoidal approximation to the Earth's surface; WGS84 is the most commonly used such datum.


Parallel Processing

Parallel processing is the use of multiple CPU’s to execute different sections of a program together.
Remote sensing Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object, in contrast to in situ or on-site observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring information about Eart ...
and surveying equipment have been providing vast amounts of spatial information, and how to manage, process or dispose of this data have become major issues in the field of Geographic Information Science (GIS). To solve these problems there has been much research into the area of parallel processing of GIS information. This involves the utilization of a single computer with multiple processors or multiple computers that are connected over a network working on the same task. There are many different types of distributed computing, two of the most common are clustering and grid processing. Some consider grid computing to be “the third information technology wave” after the Internet and Web, and will be the backbone of the next generation of services and applications that are going to further the research and development of GIS and related areas. Grid computing allows for the sharing of processing power, enabling the attainment of high performances in computing, management and services. Grid computing, (unlike the conventional supercomputer that does parallel computing by linking multiple processors over a system bus) uses a network of computers to execute a program. The problem of using multiple computers lies in the difficulty of dividing up the tasks among the computers, without having to reference portions of the code being executed on other CPUs.
Amdahl's law In computer architecture, Amdahl's law (or Amdahl's argument) is a formula which gives the theoretical speedup in latency of the execution of a task at fixed workload that can be expected of a system whose resources are improved. It states tha ...
expresses the speedup of a program as a result of parallelization. It states that potential program speedup is defined by the fraction of code (P) that can be parallelized: 1/(1-P). If the code cannot be broken up to run over multiple processors, P = 0 and the speedup = 1 (no speedup). If it is possible to break up the code to be perfectly parallel then P = 1 and the speedup is infinite, in theory though practical limits occur. Thus, there is an upper bound on the usefulness of adding more parallel execution units.
Gustafson's law In computer architecture, Gustafson's law (or Gustafson–Barsis's law) gives the speedup in the execution time of a task that theoretically gains from parallel computing, using a hypothetical run of ''the task'' on a single-core machine as the b ...
is a law closely related to Amdahl's law but doesn't make as many assumptions and tries to model these factors in the representation of performance. The equation can be modelled by S(P) = P − α * (P − 1) where P is the number of processors, S is the speedup, and α the non-parallelizable part of the process. The
hadoop Apache Hadoop () is a collection of open-source software utilities that facilitates using a network of many computers to solve problems involving massive amounts of data and computation. It provides a software framework for distributed storage an ...
framework has been used successfully in GIS processing.


See also

* AM/FM/GIS *
ArcGIS ArcGIS is a family of client, server and online geographic information system (GIS) software developed and maintained by Esri. ArcGIS was first released in 1999 and originally was released as ARC/INFO, a command line based GIS system for manipul ...
*
At-location mapping At-location mapping (ALM) is closely related to location-based services (LBS). However, ALM focuses on the delivery of maps 'at location', using mobile devices that are enabled with Global Positioning System (GPS) technology. At-location mapping d ...
* Automotive navigation system * Cadastral map *
Collaborative mapping Collaborative mapping, also known as citizen mapping, is the aggregation of Web mapping and user-generated content, from a group of individuals or entities, and can take several distinct forms. With the growth of technology for storing and sharing ...
*
Comparison of GIS software This is a comparison of notable GIS software. To be included on this list, the software must have a linked existing article. License, source, & operating system support Pure server Map servers Map caches Pure web client Libraries See a ...
*
Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography ''Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography'', abbreviated CATMOG, is a series of 59 short publications, each focused on an individual method or theory in geography. Background and impact ''Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography'' were p ...
*
Counter-mapping Counter-mapping is creating maps that challenge "dominant power structures, to further seemingly progressive goals". counter-mapping is used in multiple disciplines to reclaim colonized territory. Counter-maps are prolific in indigenous cultures, ...
* CyberGIS *
Digital geologic mapping Digital geologic mapping is the process by which geological features are observed, analyzed, and recorded in the field and displayed in real-time on a computer or personal digital assistant (PDA). The primary function of this emerging technology i ...
*
Geographic information systems in geospatial intelligence Geographic information systems (GIS) play a constantly evolving role in geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) and United States national security. These technologies allow a user to efficiently manage, analyze, and produce geospatial data, to combine ...
*
Geomatics Geomatics is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as the "discipline concerned with the collection, distribution, storage, analysis, processing, presentation of geographic data or geographic information". Under another definition, it ...
* GIS and aquatic science * GIS and public health * GISCorps * GIS Day *
GIS in archaeology GIS or Geographic Information Systems has been an important tool in archaeology since the early 1990s. Indeed, archaeologists were early adopters, users, and developers of GIS and GIScience, Geographic Information Science. The combination of GIS an ...
*
GvSIG gvSIG, geographic information system (GIS), is a desktop application designed for capturing, storing, handling, analyzing and deploying any kind of referenced geographic information in order to solve complex management and planning problems. gv ...
*
Historical GIS A historical geographic information system (also written as historical GIS or HGIS) is a geographic information system that may display, store and analyze data of past geographies and track changes in time. It can be regarded as a tool for historic ...
* Integrated Geo Systems *
Internet GIS Internet GIS, or Internet geographic information systems, is a term that refers to a broad set of technologies and applications that employ the Internet to access, analyze, visualize, and distribute spatial data. Introduction Internet GIS is a ...
*
List of GIS data sources This is a list of GIS data sources (including some geoportals) that provide information sets that can be used in geographic information systems (GIS) and spatial databases for purposes of geospatial analysis and cartographic mapping. This list cat ...
*
List of GIS software A GIS software program is a computer program to support the use of a geographic information system, providing the ability to create, store, manage, query, analyze, and visualize geographic data, that is, data representing phenomena for which lo ...
* Map database management *
Participatory GIS Participatory GIS (PGIS) or public participation geographic information system (PPGIS) is a participatory approach to spatial planning and spatial information and communications management. PGIS combines Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) ...
*
QGIS QGIS is a free and open-source cross-platform desktop geographic information system (GIS) application that supports viewing, editing, printing, and analysis of geospatial data. Functionality QGIS functions as geographic information system (GIS ...
*
SAGA GIS System for Automated Geoscientific Analyses (SAGA GIS) is a geographic information system (GIS) computer program, used to edit spatial data. It is free and open-source software, developed originally by a small team at the Department of Physical G ...
* Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) *
Technical geography Technical geography is one of three main branches of geography and involves using, studying, and creating tools to obtain, analyze, interpret, and understand spatial information. The other two branches, human geography and physical geography, can ...
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TerrSet TerrSet (formerly IDRISI) is an integrated geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing software developed by Clark Labs at Clark University for the analysis and display of digital geospatial information. TerrSet is a PC grid-based syste ...
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Tobler's first law of geography The First Law of Geography, according to Waldo Tobler, is "everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things." This first law is the foundation of the fundamental concepts of spatial dependence and spati ...
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Tobler's second law of geography The second law of geography, according to Waldo Tobler, is "the phenomenon external to a geographic area of interest affects what goes on inside." Background Tobler's second law of geography, "the phenomenon external to a geographic area of inte ...
* Traditional knowledge GIS *
Virtual globe A virtual globe is a three-dimensional (3D) software model or representation of Earth or another world. A virtual globe provides the user with the ability to freely move around in the virtual environment by changing the viewing angle and posit ...


References

{{reflist *Chan, T, O, Williamson, I, P. (1997) Definition of GIS: The manager's perspective. International Workshop on Dynamic and Multi-Dimensional GIS. Hong Kong, pp 18
DEFINITION OF GIS: THE MANAGER’S PERSPECTIVE
*we-do-IT (2013): LatLonGO - Enabling the Spatial Enterprise. we-do-IT White Paper, Electronic document

*ESRI (2003): Enterprise GIS for Municipal Government. ESRI White Paper. Electronic document
Wayback Machine
*Ionita, A. (2006): Developing an Enterprise GIS. Electronic document

*Sipes, J.L. (2005): Spatial Technologies: Software Strategy: Options for the Enterprise. Electronic document
GIS , CadalystWayback Machine
Distributed Geographic Information Systems