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Titus Flavius Clemens, also known as Clement of Alexandria ( grc , Κλήμης ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς; – ), was a
Christian theologian Christian theology is the theology of Christian belief and practice. Such study concentrates primarily upon the texts of the Old Testament and of the New Testament, as well as on Christian tradition. Christian theologians use biblical exegesis ...
and philosopher who taught at the
Catechetical School of Alexandria The Catechetical School of Alexandria was a school of Christian theologians and bishops and deacons in Alexandria. The teachers and students of the school (also known as the Didascalium) were influential in many of the early theological controver ...
. Among his pupils were Origen and
Alexander of Jerusalem Alexander of Jerusalem (died 251 AD) was a third century bishop who is venerated as a martyr and saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Roman Catholic Church. He died during the persecution of Emperor Deciu ...
. A convert to Christianity, he was an educated man who was familiar with classical Greek philosophy and literature. As his three major works demonstrate, Clement was influenced by Hellenistic philosophy to a greater extent than any other Christian thinker of his time, and in particular, by Plato and the Stoics. His secret works, which exist only in fragments, suggest that he was familiar with pre-Christian
Jewish Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
esotericism and Gnosticism as well. In one of his works he argued that Greek philosophy had its origin among non-Greeks, claiming that both Plato and Pythagoras were taught by Egyptian scholars. Clement is usually regarded as a
Church Father The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were ancient and influential Christian theologians and writers who established the intellectual and doctrinal foundations of Christianity. The historical pe ...
. He is venerated as a saint in Coptic Christianity, Eastern Catholicism,
Ethiopian Christianity Christianity in Ethiopia is the largest religion in the country, as 63% of the country, Islam follows behind. Christinaity in Ethiopia dates back to the early medieval Kingdom of Aksum, when the King Ezana first adopted the faith in 4th century A ...
, and Anglicanism. He was revered in Western Catholicism until 1586, when his name was removed from the Roman Martyrology by Pope Sixtus V on the advice of
Baronius Cesare Baronio (as an author also known as Caesar Baronius; 30 August 1538 – 30 June 1607) was an Italian cardinal and historian of the Catholic Church. His best-known works are his ''Annales Ecclesiastici'' ("Ecclesiastical Annals"), whi ...
. The Eastern Orthodox Church officially stopped any veneration of Clement of Alexandria in the 10th century.


Biography

Neither Clement's birthdate or birthplace is known with any degree of certainty. It is speculated that he was born sometime around 150 AD. According to Epiphanius of Salamis, he was born in Athens, but there is also a tradition of an
Alexandria Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandri ...
n birth. His parents were pagans and Clement was a convert to Christianity. In the '' Protrepticus'' he displays an extensive knowledge of Greek religion and mystery religions, which could only have arisen from the practice of his family's religion. Having rejected paganism as a young man due to its perceived moral corruption, he travelled in
Greece Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders ...
, Asia Minor, Palestine, and
Egypt Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Medit ...
. Clement's journeys were primarily a religious undertaking. In Greece, he encountered an Ionian theologian, who has been identified as
Athenagoras of Athens Athenagoras (; grc-gre, Ἀθηναγόρας ὁ Ἀθηναῖος; c. 133 – c. 190 AD) was a Father of the Church, an Ante-Nicene Christian apologist who lived during the second half of the 2nd century of whom little is known for certain, ...
; while in the east, he was taught by an Assyrian, sometimes identified with Tatian, and a Jew, possibly Theophilus of Caesarea. In around 180 AD, Clement reached
Alexandria Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandri ...
, where he met Pantaenus, who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Eusebius suggests that Pantaenus was the head of the school, but controversy exists about whether the institutions of the school were formalized in this way before the time of Origen. Clement studied under Pantaenus, and was ordained to the priesthood by Pope Julian before 189. Otherwise, virtually nothing is known of Clement's personal life in Alexandria. He may have been married, a conjecture supported by his writings. During the Severian persecution of 202–203, Clement left Alexandria. In 211,
Alexander of Jerusalem Alexander of Jerusalem (died 251 AD) was a third century bishop who is venerated as a martyr and saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Roman Catholic Church. He died during the persecution of Emperor Deciu ...
wrote a letter commending him to the Church of Antioch, which may imply that Clement was living in Cappadocia or Jerusalem at that time. He died at an unknown location.


Theological works


Trilogy

Three of Clement's major works have survived in full and they are collectively referred to as a trilogy: *The '' Protrepticus'' (''Exhortation'') – written *The ''
Paedagogus ''Paedagogus'' ( el, Παιδαγωγός, "Pedagogue") is the second in the great trilogy of Clement of Alexandria. Having laid a foundation in the knowledge of divine truth in the first book, he goes on in the ''Paedagogus'' to develop a Chr ...
'' (''Tutor'') – written *The '' Stromata'' (''Miscellanies'') – written –


''Protrepticus''

The ''Protrepticus'' ( el, Προτρεπτικὸς πρὸς Ἕλληνας: "Exhortation to the Greeks") is, as its title suggests, an exhortation to the pagans of Greece to adopt Christianity. Within it, Clement demonstrates his extensive knowledge of pagan mythology and theology. It is chiefly important due to Clement's exposition of religion as an anthropological phenomenon. After a short philosophical discussion, it opens with a history of Greek religion in seven stages. Clement suggests that at first, humans mistakenly believed the Sun, the Moon, and other heavenly bodies to be deities. The next developmental stage was the worship of the products of agriculture, from which he contends the cults of Demeter and
Dionysus In ancient Greek religion and myth, Dionysus (; grc, Διόνυσος ) is the god of the grape-harvest, winemaking, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, festivity, and theatre. The Roma ...
arose. Humans then paid reverence to revenge and deified human feelings of love and fear, among others. In the following stage, the poets Hesiod and Homer attempt to enumerate the deities; Hesiod's Theogony giving the number of twelve. Finally, humans reached a stage when they proclaimed others, such as Asclepius and Heracles, as deities. Discussing idolatry, Clement contends that the objects of primitive religion were unshaped wood and stone, and idols thus arose when such natural items were carved. Following Plato, Clement is critical of all forms of visual art, suggesting that artworks are but illusions and "deadly toys". Clement criticizes Greek paganism in the ''Protrepticus'' on the basis that its deities are both false and poor moral examples. He attacks the mystery religions for their ritualism and mysticism. In particular, the worshippers of
Dionysus In ancient Greek religion and myth, Dionysus (; grc, Διόνυσος ) is the god of the grape-harvest, winemaking, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, festivity, and theatre. The Roma ...
are ridiculed by him for their family-based rituals (such as the use of children's toys in ceremony). He suggests at some points that the pagan deities are based on humans, but at other times he suggests that they are misanthropic demons, and he cites several classical sources in support of this second hypothesis. Clement, like many pre-Nicene church fathers, writes favourably about Euhemerus and other rationalist philosophers, on the grounds that they at least saw the flaws in paganism. However, his greatest praise is reserved for Plato, whose apophatic views of God prefigure Christianity. The figure of Orpheus is prominent throughout the Protrepticus narrative, and Clement contrasts the song of Orpheus, representing pagan superstition, with the divine Logos of Christ. According to Clement, through conversion to Christianity alone can one fully participate in the Logos, which is universal truth.


''Paedagogus''

The title of ''Paedagogus'', translatable as "tutor", refers to Christ as the teacher of all humans, and it features an extended metaphor of Christians as children. It is not simply instructional: Clement intends to show how the Christian should respond to the Love of God authentically. Following Plato ( Republic 4:441), he divides life into three elements: character, actions, and passions. The first having been dealt with in the ''Protrepticus'', he devotes the ''Paedagogus'' to reflections on Christ's role in teaching humans to act morally and to control their passions. Despite its explicitly Christian nature, Clement's work draws on
Stoic philosophy Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BCE. It is a philosophy of personal virtue ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world, asserting that t ...
and pagan literature; Homer, alone, is cited more than sixty times in the work. Although Christ, like a human, is made in the
image of God The image of God (; ) is a concept and theological doctrine in Christianity, as well as in Judaism. This concept is a foundational aspect of Christian and Jewish understandings of human nature. It stems from the primary text in Genesis 1:27, which ...
, he alone shares the likeness of God the Father. Christ is both
sinless Impeccability is the absence of sin. Christianity teaches this to be an attribute of God (logically God cannot sin: it would mean that he would act against his own will and nature) and therefore it is also attributed to Christ. Roman Catholic ...
and apathetic, and thus by striving to imitate Christ, one can achieve salvation. To Clement, sin is involuntary, and thus irrational (), removed only through the wisdom of the Logos. God's guidance away from sin is thus a manifestation of God's universal love for mankind. The word play on and is characteristic of Clement's writing, and may be rooted in the
Epicurean Epicureanism is a system of philosophy founded around 307 BC based upon the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus. Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism. Later its main opponent became Stoicism. Few writings by Ep ...
belief that relationships between words are deeply reflective of relationships between the objects they signify. Clement argues for the equality of sexes, on the grounds that salvation is extended to all humans equally. Unusually, he suggests that Christ is neither female nor male, and that God the Father has both female and male aspects: the eucharist is described as milk from the breast (Christ) of the Father. Clement is supportive of women playing an active role in the leadership of the church and he provides a list of women he considers inspirational, which includes both Biblical and Classical Greek figures. It has been suggested that Clement's progressive views on gender as set out in the ''Paedagogus'' were influenced by Gnosticism, however, later in the work, he argues against the Gnostics that faith, not esoteric knowledge (), is required for salvation. According to Clement, it is through faith in Christ that one is enlightened and comes to know God. In the second book, Clement provides practical rules on living a Christian life. He argues against overindulgence in food and in favour of good
table manners Table manners are the rules of etiquette used while eating, which may also include the use of utensils. Different cultures observe different rules for table manners. Each family or group sets its own standards for how strictly these rules are ...
. While prohibiting drunkenness, he promotes the drinking of alcohol in moderation following 1 Timothy 5:23. Clement argues for a simple way of life in accordance with the innate simplicity of Christian monotheism. He condemns elaborate and expensive furnishings and clothing, and argues against overly passionate music and perfumes, but Clement does not believe in the abandonment of worldly pleasures and argues that the Christian should be able to express joy in God's creation through gaiety and partying. He opposes the wearing of garlands, because the picking of the flowers ultimately kills a beautiful creation of God, and the garland resembles the
crown of thorns According to the New Testament, a woven crown of thorns ( or grc, ἀκάνθινος στέφανος, akanthinos stephanos, label=none) was placed on the head of Jesus during the events leading up to his crucifixion. It was one of the in ...
. Clement treats sex at some length. He argues that both promiscuity and
sexual abstinence Sexual abstinence or sexual restraint is the practice of refraining from some or all aspects of sexual activity for medical, psychological, legal, social, financial, philosophical, moral, or religious reasons. Sexual abstinence is distinct from ...
are unnatural, and that the main goal of human sexuality is procreation. He argues that adultery, coitus with pregnant women,
concubinage Concubinage is an interpersonal and sexual relationship between a man and a woman in which the couple does not want, or cannot enter into a full marriage. Concubinage and marriage are often regarded as similar but mutually exclusive. Concubin ...
, homosexuality, and prostitution all should be avoided as they will not contribute toward the generation of legitimate offspring. In his third book, Clement continues along a similar vein, condemning cosmetics on the grounds that it is one's soul, not the body, one should seek to beautify. Clement also opposes the dyeing of men's hair and male
depilation Hair removal, also known as epilation or depilation, is the deliberate removal of body hair or head hair. Hair typically grows all over the human body and can vary in thickness and length across human populations. Hair can become more visible ...
as being
effeminate Effeminacy is the embodiment of traits and/or expressions in those who are not of the female sex (e.g. boys and men) that are often associated with what is generally perceived to be feminine behaviours, mannerisms, styles, or gender roles, rath ...
. He advises choosing one's company carefully, to avoid being corrupted by immoral people, and while arguing that material wealth is no sin in itself, it is too likely to distract one from the infinitely more important spiritual wealth that is found in Christ. The work finishes with selections of scripture supporting Clement's argument, and following a prayer, the lyrics of a
hymn A hymn is a type of song, and partially synonymous with devotional song, specifically written for the purpose of adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification. The word ''hy ...
.


''Stromata''

The contents of the ''Stromata'', as its title suggests, are miscellaneous. Its place in the trilogy is disputed – Clement initially intended to write the ''Didasculus'', a work that would complement the practical guidance of the ''Paedagogus'' with a more intellectual schooling in theology. The ''Stromata'' is less systematic and ordered than Clement's other works, and it has been theorized by André Méhat that it was intended for a limited, esoteric readership. Although Eusebius wrote of the eight books of the work, only seven undoubtedly survive. Photius, writing in the 9th century, found various text appended to manuscripts of the seven canonical books, which led
Daniel Heinsius Daniel is a masculine given name and a surname of Hebrew origin. It means "God is my judge"Hanks, Hardcastle and Hodges, ''Oxford Dictionary of First Names'', Oxford University Press, 2nd edition, , p. 68. (cf. Gabriel—"God is my strength"), ...
to suggest that the original eighth book is lost, and he identified the text purported to be from the eighth book as fragments of the ''Hypotyposes''. The first book starts on the topic of Greek philosophy. Consistent with his other writing, Clement affirms that philosophy had a
propaedeutic Propaedeutics or propedeutics (from Ancient Greek , ''propaídeusis'' 'preparatory education') is a historical term for an introductory course into an art or science. The etymology of propedeutics comprises the Latin prefix ''pro'', meaning earlier ...
role for the Greeks, similar to the function of the
law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90. with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been vario ...
for the Jews. He then embarks on a discussion of the origins of Greek culture and technology, arguing that most of the important figures in the Greek world were foreigners, and (erroneously) that Jewish culture was the most significant influence on Greece. In an attempt to demonstrate the primacy of Moses, Clement gives an extended chronology of the world, wherein he dates the birth of Christ to 25 April or May, 4–2 BC, and the creation of the world to 5592 BC. The books ends with a discussion on the origin of languages and the possibility of a Jewish influence on Plato. The second book is largely devoted to the respective roles of faith and philosophical argument. Clement contends that while both are important, the
fear of God Fear of God may refer to fear itself, but more often to a sense of awe, and submission to, a deity. People subscribing to popular monotheistic religions for instance, might fear Hell and divine judgment, or submit to God's omnipotence. Christi ...
is foremost, because through faith one receives divine wisdom. To Clement,
scripture Religious texts, including scripture, are texts which various religions consider to be of central importance to their religious tradition. They differ from literature by being a compilation or discussion of beliefs, mythologies, ritual pra ...
is an innately true primitive philosophy that is complemented by human reason through the Logos. Faith is voluntary, and the decision to believe is a crucial fundamental step in becoming closer to God. It is never irrational, as it is founded on the knowledge of the truth of the Logos, but all knowledge proceeds from faith, as first principles are unprovable outside a systematic structure. The third book covers asceticism. He discusses marriage, which is treated similarly in the ''Paedagogus''. Clement rejects the Gnostic opposition to marriage, arguing that only men who are uninterested in women should remain celibate, and that sex is a positive good if performed within marriage for the purposes of procreation. He argues that this has not always been so: the Fall occurred because Adam and Eve succumbed to their desire for each other, and copulated before the allotted time. He argues against the idea that Christians should reject their family for an ascetic life, which stems from Luke, contending that Jesus would not have contradicted the precept to "Honour thy Father and thy Mother", one of the Ten Commandments. Clement concludes that asceticism will only be rewarded if the motivation is Christian in nature, and thus the asceticism of non-Christians such as the
gymnosophists Gymnosophists ( grc, γυμνοσοφισταί, ''gymnosophistaí'', i.e. "naked philosophers" or "naked wise men" (from Greek γυμνός ''gymnós'' "naked" and σοφία ''sophía'' "wisdom")) is the name given by the Greeks to certain anc ...
is pointless. Clement begins the fourth book with a belated explanation of the disorganized nature of the work, and gives a brief description of his aims for the remaining three or four books. The fourth book focuses on martyrdom. While all good Christians should be unafraid of death, Clement condemns those who actively seek out a martyr's death, arguing that they do not have sufficient respect for God's gift of life. He is ambivalent about whether any believing Christians can become martyrs by virtue of the manner of their death, or whether martyrdom is reserved for those who have lived exceptional lives.
Marcionites Marcionism was an early Christian dualistic belief system that originated with the teachings of Marcion of Sinope in Rome around the year 144. Marcion was an early Christian theologian, evangelist, and an important figure in early Christianity. ...
cannot become martyrs, because they do not believe in the divinity of God the Father, so their sufferings are in vain. There is then a digression to the subject of theological epistemology. According to Clement, there is no way of empirically testing the existence of God the Father, because the Logos has revelatory, not analysable meaning, although Christ was an object of the senses. God had no beginning, and is the universal first principle. The fifth book returns to the subject of faith. Clement argues that truth, justice, and goodness can be seen only by the mind, not the eye; faith is a way of accessing the unseeable. He stresses that knowledge of God can only be achieved through faith once one's moral faults have been corrected. This parallels Clement's earlier insistence that martyrdom can only be achieved by those who practice their faith in Christ through good deeds, not those who simply profess their faith. God transcends matter entirely, and thus the materialist cannot truly come to know God. Although Christ was God incarnate, it is spiritual, not physical comprehension of him that is important. In the beginning of the sixth book, Clement intends to demonstrate that the works of Greek poets were derived from the prophetic books of the Bible. In order to reinforce his position that the Greeks were inclined toward plagiarism, he cites numerous instances of such inappropriate appropriation by classical Greek writers, reported second-hand from ''On Plagiarism'', an anonymous 3rd-century BC work sometimes ascribed to Aretades. Clement then digresses to the subject of sin and hell, arguing that Adam was not perfect when created, but given the potential to achieve perfection. He espouses broadly universalist doctrine, holding that Christ's promise of salvation is available to all, even those condemned to hell. The final extant book begins with a description of the nature of Christ, and that of the true Christian, who aims to be as similar as possible to both the Father and the Son. Clement then criticizes the simplistic anthropomorphism of most ancient religions, quoting Xenophanes' famous description of African, Thracian, and Egyptian deities. He indicates that the Greek deities may also have had their origins in the personification of material objects: Ares representing iron, and Dionysus wine. Prayer, and the relationship between love and knowledge are then discussed. Corinthians 13:8 seems to contradict the characterization of the true Christian as one who knows; but to Clement knowledge vanishes only in that it is subsumed by the universal love expressed by the Christian in reverence for the Creator. Following Socrates, he argues that vice arises from a state of ignorance, not from intention. The Christian is a "laborer in God's vineyard", responsible both for one's own path to salvation and that of one's neighbor. The work ends with an extended passage against the contemporary divisions and heresies within the church.


Other works

Besides the great trilogy, Clement's only other extant work is the treatise ''Salvation for the Rich'', also known as ''Who is the Rich Man who is Saved?'' written c. 203 AD Having begun with a scathing criticism of the corrupting effects of money and misguided servile attitudes toward the wealthy, Clement discusses the implications of Mark 10:25. The rich are either unconvinced by the promise of eternal life, or unaware of the conflict between the possession of material and spiritual wealth, and the good Christian has a duty to guide them toward a better life through the Gospel. Jesus' words are not to be taken literally — the supercelestial () meanings should be sought in which the true route to salvation is revealed. The holding of material wealth in itself is not a wrong, so long as it is used charitably, but Christians should be careful not to let their wealth dominate their spirit. It is more important to give up sinful passions than external wealth. If the rich are to be saved, all they must do is to follow the two commandments, and while material wealth is of no value to God, it can be used to alleviate the suffering of neighbors. Other known works exist in fragments alone, including the four eschatological works in the secret tradition: ''Hypotyposes'', ''Excerpta ex Theodoto'', ''Eclogae Propheticae'', and the ''Adumbraetiones''. These cover Clement's celestial hierarchy, a complex schema in which the universe is headed by the Face of God, below which lie seven ''protoctists'', followed by archangels, angels, and humans. According to Jean Daniélou, this schema is inherited from a Judaeo-Christian esotericism, followed by the Apostles, which was only imparted orally to those Christians who could be trusted with such mysteries. The ''proctocists'' are the first beings created by God, and act as priests to the archangels. Clement identifies them both as the "Eyes of the Lord" and with the Thrones. Clement characterizes the celestial forms as entirely different from anything earthly, although he argues that members of each order only seem incorporeal to those of lower orders. According to the ''Eclogae Propheticae'', every thousand years every member of each order moves up a degree, and thus humans can become angels. Even the ''protoctists'' can be elevated, although their new position in the hierarchy is not clearly defined. The apparent contradiction between the fact that there can be only seven ''protoctists'' but also a vast number of archangels to be promoted to their order is problematical. One modern solution regards the story as an example of "interiorized apocalypticism": imagistic details are not to be taken literally, but as symbolizing interior transformation. The titles of several lost works are known because of a list in Eusebius' ''
Ecclesiastical History __NOTOC__ Church history or ecclesiastical history as an academic discipline studies the history of Christianity and the way the Christian Church has developed since its inception. Henry Melvill Gwatkin defined church history as "the spiritua ...
'', 6.13.1–3. They include the ''Outlines'', in eight books, and ''Against Judaizers''. Others are known only from mentions in Clement's own writings, including ''On Marriage'' and ''On Prophecy'', although few are attested by other writers and it is difficult to separate works that he intended to write from those that were completed. The Mar Saba letter was attributed to Clement by
Morton Smith Morton Smith (May 28, 1915 – July 11, 1991)Neusner, Jacob, ''Christianity, Judaism, and other Greco-Roman Cults. Part 1: New Testament'', ed. J. Neusner, ''Studies for Morton Smith at Sixty, vol 1, New Testament'' (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1975), p. ...
, but there remains much debate today over whether it is an authentic letter from Clement, an ancient
pseudepigraph Pseudepigrapha (also anglicized as "pseudepigraph" or "pseudepigraphs") are falsely attributed works, texts whose claimed author is not the true author, or a work whose real author attributed it to a figure of the past.Bauckham, Richard; "Pseu ...
, or a modern forgery. If authentic, its main significance would be in its relating that the Apostle Mark came to Alexandria from Rome and there, wrote a more spiritual Gospel, which he entrusted to the Church in Alexandria on his death; if genuine, the letter pushes back the tradition related by Eusebius connecting Mark with Alexandria by a century.


Legacy

Eusebius is the first writer to provide an account of Clement's life and works, in his ''
Ecclesiastical History __NOTOC__ Church history or ecclesiastical history as an academic discipline studies the history of Christianity and the way the Christian Church has developed since its inception. Henry Melvill Gwatkin defined church history as "the spiritua ...
'', 5.11.1–5, 6.6.1 Eusebius provides a list of Clement's works, biographical information, and an extended quotation from the ''Stromata''. Photios I of Constantinople writes against Clement's theology in the '' Bibliotheca'', although he is appreciative of Clement's learning and the literary merits of his work. In particular, he is highly critical of the ''Hypotyposes'', a work of biblical exegesis of which only a few fragments have survived. Photios compared Clement's treatise, which, like his other works, was highly syncretic, featuring ideas of Hellenistic, Jewish, and Gnostic origin, unfavorably against the prevailing orthodoxy of the 9th century. Amongst the particular ideas Photios deemed
heretical Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, in particular the accepted beliefs of a church or religious organization. The term is usually used in reference to violations of important religi ...
were: *His belief that matter and thought are eternal, and thus did not originate from God, contradicting the doctrine of ''
Creatio ex nihilo (Latin for "creation out of nothing") is the doctrine that matter is not eternal but had to be created by some divine creative act. It is a theistic answer to the question of how the universe comes to exist. It is in contrast to ''Ex nihilo n ...
''. *His belief in cosmic cycles predating the creation of the world, following Heraclitus, which is extra-Biblical in origin. *His belief that Christ, as Logos, was in some sense created, contrary to
John 1 John 1 is the first chapter in the Gospel of John in the New Testament of the Holy Bible. The author of the book containing this chapter is anonymous, but early Christian tradition uniformly affirmed that John composed this gospel.Holman Illust ...
, but following Philo. *His ambivalence toward docetism, the heretical doctrine that Christ's earthly body was an illusion. *His belief that Eve was created from Adam's sperm after he ejaculated during the night *His belief that Genesis 6:2 implies that angels indulged in
coitus Sexual intercourse (or coitus or copulation) is a sexual activity typically involving the insertion and thrusting of the penis into the vagina for sexual pleasure or reproduction.Sexual intercourse most commonly means penile–vaginal penetr ...
with human women (in Chalcedonian theology, angels are considered sexless). * His belief in reincarnation, i.e., the transmigration of souls. As one of the earliest of the Church fathers whose works have survived, he is the subject of a significant amount of recent academic work, focusing on, among other things, his exegesis of scripture, his Logos-theology and pneumatology, the relationship between his thought and non-Christian philosophy, and his influence on Origen.


Veneration

Up until the 17th century Clement was venerated as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church. His name was to be found in the martyrologies, and his feast fell on the fourth of December, but when the Roman Martyrology was revised by Pope Clement VIII his name was dropped from the calendar on the advice of Cardinal
Baronius Cesare Baronio (as an author also known as Caesar Baronius; 30 August 1538 – 30 June 1607) was an Italian cardinal and historian of the Catholic Church. His best-known works are his ''Annales Ecclesiastici'' ("Ecclesiastical Annals"), whi ...
.
Benedict XIV Pope Benedict XIV ( la, Benedictus XIV; it, Benedetto XIV; 31 March 1675 – 3 May 1758), born Prospero Lorenzo Lambertini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 17 August 1740 to his death in May 1758. Pope ...
maintained this decision of his predecessor on the grounds that Clement's life was little known, that he had never obtained public
cultus Cultus may refer to: *Cult (religious practice) * ''Cultus'' (stonefly), a genus of stoneflies * Cultus Bay, a bay in Washington * Cultus Lake (disambiguation) *Cultus River, a river in Oregon *Suzuki Cultus The Suzuki Cultus is a supermini car ...
in the Church, and that some of his doctrines were, if not erroneous, at least suspect. Although Clement is not widely venerated in Eastern Christianity, the Prologue of Ohrid repeatedly refers to him as a saint, as do various Orthodox authorities including the
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
Metropolitan Kallinikos of Edessa. The Coptic tradition considers Clement a saint. Saint Clement Coptic Orthodox Christian Academy in Nashville, Tennessee, is specifically named after him. Clement is commemorated in Anglicanism. The independent Universal Catholic Church's cathedral in
Dallas Dallas () is the List of municipalities in Texas, third largest city in Texas and the largest city in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, the List of metropolitan statistical areas, fourth-largest metropolitan area in the United States at 7.5 ...
is also dedicated to him.


Theology


Gnosis

Clement taught that faith was the basis of salvation, however he also believed that faith was also the basis of "gnosis" which for him mean spiritual and mystical knowledge. Clement of Alexandria appropriated the word "gnosis" from what the Gnostics used, whom he opposed, but re-interpreted the word in a more Christian manner. Clement of Alexandria distinguished between two kinds of Christians, a pistic Christian who lives according to God's law, and the Christian gnostic who lives on the level of the gospel and responds by discipline and love. Clement's views of gnosis can be considered a forerunner of monasticism that began in Egypt after his death.


Philosophy

Clement claimed that philosophy was a preparatory discipline to the Greek world that would lead them to accept Christianity. Clement of Alexandria also was a forerunner to some views of Augustine, including the just war theory and the theory of the two cities.


Education

For Clement, disciplining the body will help the Christian discipline his soul, which is why he gives detailed instructions on proper Christian conduct, decorum, and relationships in the second and third books of ''The Instructor''. Only once the passions are subject to the authority of the Word (or reason) can the Christian embark on an advanced course of philosophical study and contemplation. Clement adopts a position that will give rise to a whole stream of later Christian thought: true philosophy and authentic human knowledge have their origin in the Logos, which is the unique source of all truth. He accepts the conception of παιδεία as he conducts the wisdom taught by the Logos through education in the sacred letters: on the one hand, the Greek παιδεία prepares the mind of the Christian to distinguish and defend the truth, and, on the other, the liberal arts help the new Christian to direct all his efforts towards the truly useful of each particular discipline, geometry, music, grammar and philosophy.


Economics

Clement attacked a literal interpretation of the command "sell what you have and give to the poor" and he argued that the Bible does not command to renounce all property and that wealth can be used either for good or evil.


Creation

Clement believed that the days mentioned in Genesis are allegorical. Clement assumed a double creation, one of an invisible world and the second being material creation. He believed that formless matter existed before the creation of the world, being influenced by Plato. Clement tried to interpret Genesis 6 in harmony with the Book of Enoch.


Others

The first person in church history to introduce a view of an
invisible Invisibility is the state of an object that cannot be seen. An object in this state is said to be ''invisible'' (literally, "not visible"). The phenomenon is studied by physics and perceptual psychology. Since objects can be seen by light in ...
and a visible church is Clement of Alexandria. Because Clement saw the
Protoevangelium of James The Gospel of James (or the Protoevangelium of James) is a second-century infancy gospel telling of the miraculous conception of the Virgin Mary, her upbringing and marriage to Joseph, the journey of the couple to Bethlehem, the birth of Jesus, a ...
as canonical, it could imply he believed in the
perpetual virginity of Mary The perpetual virginity of Mary is a Christian doctrine that Mary, the mother of Jesus, was a virgin before, during and after the birth of Christ. In Western Christianity, the Catholic Church adheres to the doctrine, as do some Lutherans, Anglic ...
, though some have argued that he does not seem to believe in the sinlessness of Mary. Clement of Alexandria believed that those who died in their deathbed without having time to be sanctified, would be sanctified in a purifying fire after death. Clement of Alexandria used the word "symbol" to define the Eucharist, and interpreted ''John 6'' to be an allegory about faith, however his views on real presence are disputed. Clement of Alexandria was an amillenialist.


Works


Editions

* Sylburg, Friedrich (ed.) (1592).
''Clementis Alexandrini Opera Quae Extant''.
Heidelberg: ex typographeio Hieronymi Commelini. * Heinsius, Daniel (ed.) (1616).
''Clementis Alexandrini Opera Graece et Latine Quae Extant''.
Leiden: excudit Ioannes Patius academiae typographus. * Potter, John (ed.) (1715). ''Clementis Alexandrini Opera'', 2 vols. Oxonii: e theatro Sheldoniano
Vol. 1. ''Cohortatio ad gentes. Paedagogus. Stromatum'' I-IV.Vol. 2. ''Stromatum'' V-VIII. ''Quis dives salvetur. Excerpta Theodoti. Prophetarum ecologiae. Fragmenta''.
* Klotz, Reinhold (ed.) (1831–34). ''Titi Flaui Clementis Alexandrini Opera Omnia'', 4 vols. Leipzig: E. B. Schwickert.
Vol. 1. ''Ρrotrepticus. Paedagogus''.Vol. 2. ''Stromatorum'' I-IV.Vol. 3.'' Stromatourm'' V-VIII. ''Quis dives salvetur''.Vol. 4. Fragmenta. Scholia. Annotationes. Indices.
* Migne, J.-P. (ed.) (1857). ''Clementis Alexandrini Opera Quae Exstant Omnia'', 2 toms. (= PG 8, 9) Paris: J.-P. Migne.
Tom. 1. ''Cohortatio ad gentes. Paedagogus. Stromata'' I-IV.Tom. 2. ''Stromata'' V-VIII. ''Quis dives salvetur''. Fragmenta.
* Dindorf, Wilhelm (ed.) (1869). ''Clementis Alexandrini Opera'', 4 vols. Oxonni: e typographeo Clarendoniano
Vol. 1. ''Ρrotrepticus. Paedagogus''.Vol. 2. ''Stromatum'' I-IV.Vol. 3. ''Stromatum'' V-VIII.Vol. 4. Annotationes. Interpretum.
*Barnard, P. Mourdant (ed.) (1897).
Clement of Alexandria, ''Quis dives salvetur''.
Texts and Studies 5/2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * :de:Otto Stählin (ed.) (1905–36). ''Clemens Alexandrinus'', 4 bds. (= GCS 12, 15, 17, 39) Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs
Bd. 1. ''Ρrotrepticus'' und ''Paedagogus''.Bd. 2. ''Stromata'' I-VI.Bd. 3. ''Stromata'' VII-VIII. ''Excerpta ex Theodoto. Eclogae prophetica. Quis dives salvetur''. Fragmente.Bd. 4. Register.
* Marcovich, Miroslav and Jacobus C. M. van Winden (eds.) (2002)
Clementis Alexandrini ''Paedagogus''.
Leiden: Brill.


Translations

*Wilson, William (trans.) (1867)
"The Writings of Clement of Alexandria".
In ''Ante-Nicene Fathers'', ed. A. Roberts, et al., 2:163–629. (Reprint 1905) New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. *Barnard, P. Mourdant (trans.) (1901)
''A Homily of Clement of Alexandria, Entitled: Who is the Rich Man that is being Saved?''
London: SPCK. * Hort, F. J. A. and Joseph B. Mayor (eds. & trans.) (1902)
''Clement of Alexandria, Miscellanies Book VII''.
London: Macmillan. *Patrick, John (1914)
''Clement of Alexandria'', 183-85.
Edinburgh: Wm. Blackwood. (''Exhortation to Endurance, or, To the Newly Baptized''; cf. Butterworth 1919, 371 ff.) *Butterworth, G. W. (ed. & trans.) (1919)
Clement of Alexandria, ''Exhortation to the Greeks, Rich Man's Salvation'', etc.
(= LCL 92) Cambridge: Harvard University Press. *Casey, Robert Pierce (ed. & trans.) (1936). ''The Excerpta ex Theodoto of Clement of Alexandria''. Studies and Documents 1. London: Christophers. *Oulton, J. E. L. and Henry Chadwick (trans.) (1954)
''Alexandrian Christianity'', 40–165.
Philadelphia: Westminster Press. (''Miscellanies'', Books III, VII) *Wood, Simon P. (trans.) (1954)
''Clement of Alexandria, Christ the Educator.''
Fathers of the Church 23. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. *Ferguson, John (trans.) (1991)
''Clement of Alexandria, Stromateis, Books 1–3.''
Fathers of the Church 85. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press.


See also

* Buddhism and the Roman world * Alexandrian school


Notes


References


Citations


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

*


External links

* * * "Clement of Alexandria" by Francis P. Havey, in the Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908. *Charles Bigg and James Donaldson (1911). " Clement of Alexandria". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.) ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 6. (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 487–490.
Clement's Protrepticus







The role and view of Scripture in Clement of Alexandria
{{DEFAULTSORT:Clement Of Alexandria 150 births 215 deaths 2nd-century Romans 2nd-century Christian theologians 3rd-century Christian saints 2nd-century philosophers 3rd-century philosophers 3rd-century Romans Amillennialism Ancient Greeks Christian anti-Gnosticism Church Fathers Saints from Roman Egypt Deans of the Catechetical School of Alexandria Egyptian people of Greek descent Egyptian theologians Egyptian philosophers Flavii Catholic philosophers Christianity and Hellenistic philosophy Converts to Christianity from pagan religions