Captain James Cook

Captain James Cook (7 November 1728 – 14 February 1779) was a British Royal Navy officer, explorer, and cartographer famous for his three voyages of exploration to the Pacific and Southern Oceans, conducted between 1768 and 1779. He completed the first recorded circumnavigation of the main islands of New Zealand and was the first known European to visit the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands.

Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager before enlisting in the Royal Navy in 1755. He served during the Seven Years' War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the St. Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. In the 1760s, he mapped the coastline of Newfoundland and made important astronomical observations which brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and the Royal Society. This acclaim came at a crucial moment in British overseas exploration, and it led to his commission in 1768 as commander of for the first of three Pacific voyages.

During these voyages, he sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped coastlines, islands, and features across the Pacific from Hawaii to Australia in greater detail than previously charted. He made contact with numerous indigenous peoples, and he claimed many territories for Britain. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, and an ability to lead men in adverse conditions. His pioneering contributions to the prevention of scurvy led the Royal Society to award him the Copley Gold Medal.

In 1779, during his second visit to Hawaii, Cook was killed when a dispute with Indigenous Hawaiians turned violent. His voyages left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge that influenced his successors well into the 20th century. Numerous memorials have been dedicated to him worldwide. However, he remains a controversial figure because of his occasionally violent encounters with indigenous peoples, and allegations that he facilitated British colonialism in the Pacific.

Early life

James Cook was born on 7 November 1728 in the village of Marton, located in the North Riding of Yorkshire, approximately eight miles from the sea. He was the second of eight children of James Cook (1693–1779), a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, and his wife, Grace Pace (1702–1765), from Thornaby-on-Tees. In 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his father's employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years of schooling, he began work for his father who had been promoted to farm manager.

In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved to the fishing village of Staithes to be apprenticed as a shopboy to grocer and haberdasher William Sanderson.

After 18 months, Cook, not proving suited for shop work, travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby and was introduced to Sanderson's friends John and Henry Walker. The Walkers were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their small fleet of vessels, plying coal along the English coast. His first assignment was aboard the collier ''Freelove'', and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and astronomy – all skills he would need one day to command his own ship.

His three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on merchant ships in the Baltic Sea. After passing his examinations in 1752, he soon progressed through the merchant navy ranks, starting with his promotion in that year to mate aboard the collier brig ''Friendship''. He served as mate on the ''Friendship'' for two and a half years, visiting ports in Norway and Netherlands, learning to navigate in shallow waters along the east coast of Britain, and traversing the Irish Sea and the English Channel.

Royal Navy

In 1755, Britain was re-arming for what was to become the Seven Years' War. Cook realised his career would advance more quickly in the military than in commercial shipping, despite the need to start at the bottom of the naval hierarchy. So at age 26, he entered the Navy at Wapping on 17 June 1755.

Cook's first posting was with , serving as able seaman and master's mate under Captain Joseph Hamar for his first year aboard, and Captain Hugh Palliser thereafter. In October and November 1755, he took part in ''Eagles capture of one French warship and the sinking of another, following which he was promoted to boatswain in addition to his other duties. His first temporary command was in March 1756 when he was briefly master of ''Cruizer'', a small cutter attached to ''Eagle'' while on patrol. In June 1757, Cook passed his master's examinations at Trinity House, Deptford, qualifying him to navigate and handle a ship of the King's fleet. He then joined the sixth-rate frigate HMS ''Solebay'' as master under Captain Robert Craig.

Canada

During the Seven Years' War, Cook served in North America as master aboard the fourth-rate Navy vessel . With others in ''Pembroke''s crew, he took part in the major amphibious assault that captured the Fortress of Louisbourg from the French in 1758, and in the siege of Quebec City in 1759.

The day after the fall of Louisbourg, Cook met an army officer, Samuel Holland, who was using a plane table to survey the area. The two men had an immediate connection through their interest in surveying, and Holland taught Cook the methods he was using. They collaborated on developing preliminary charts of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River, with Cook most likely the author of the sailing directions for the river written in 1758. The combination of Holland's land-surveying techniques and Cook's hydrographic skills enabled the latter, from that time onwards, to produce nautical charts for coastal areas that substantially exceeded the accuracy of such Admiralty charts of the time.

As General Wolfe's advance on Quebec progressed in 1759, Cook and other ship's masters took soundings, marked shoals, and updated chartsparticularly around Quebec. This information enabled Wolfe to mount a stealth attack at night, transporting troops across the river, leading to victory in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham.

Cook's surveying ability was also put to use in mapping the jagged coast of Newfoundland in the 1760s, as master of . He surveyed the northwest stretch in 1763 and 1764, the south coast between the Burin Peninsula and Cape Ray in 1765 and 1766, and the west coast in 1767. Cook employed local pilots to point out the rocks and hidden dangers along the south and west coasts. During the 1765 season, local pilots were engaged to assist with mapping Fortune Bay, the Bay d'Espoir and the coast west of St. Lawrence.

While in Newfoundland, Cook also conducted astronomical observations, in particular of the eclipse of the sun on 5 August 1766. By obtaining an accurate estimate of the time of the start and finish of the eclipse, and comparing these with the timings at a known position in England, it was possible to calculate the longitude of the observation site in Newfoundland. This result was communicated to the Royal Society in 1767.

Cook's hydrographic surveys in Newfoundlandconducted over five seasonsproduced the first large-scale, accurate maps of the island's coasts. They were the first large-scale surveys to use precise triangulation to establish land outlines. They also gave Cook his mastery of practical surveying, achieved under often adverse conditions, and brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society at a crucial moment both in his career and in the direction of British overseas discovery. Cook's charts were used for over 100 years.

At the end of the 1767 surveying season, while HMS ''Grenville'' was returning to her home port of Deptford, Cook encountered a storm at the entrance to the Thames. He anchored ''Grenville'' off the Nore lighthouse and prepared the ship to ride out the weather. One anchor cable broke, and the ship went aground on a shoal. Despite efforts to improve the situation, Cook and his crew were obliged to abandon ship. They returned when the storm eventually abated, lightened and re-rigged the ship and continued into Deptford.

First voyage (1768–1771)

Cook's first scientific voyage was a three-year expedition to the south Pacific Ocean aboard HMS ''Endeavour'', conducted from 1768 to 1771. The voyage was jointly sponsored by the Royal Navy and Royal Society. The publicly stated goal was to observe the 1769 transit of Venus from the vantage point of Tahiti. Additional objectivesoutlined in sealed orders not to be opened until Cook reached Tahitiwere searching for the postulated '' Terra Australis Incognita'' (undiscovered southern land) and claiming lands for Britain.

In early 1768, the Admiralty asked shipwright Adam Hayes to select a vessel for the expedition; he chose the merchant collier ''Earl of Pembroke'', which the Royal Navy renamed ''Endeavour''. The Captain Cook Society cites Admiralty Minutes curated at The National Archives (TNA) in Kew. Specific records are: 5 April 1768 ADM/3/76; 12 April 1768 ADM/3/76;
12 April 1768 ADM/3/76; 25 May 1768 ADM/3/76. On 5 May 1768based on the recommendation of Hugh PalliserCook, age 39, was selected by the Admiralty to lead the voyage. The next day, he took his examination for the rank of lieutenanta rank that was required for the captain of a ship armed with the number of guns planned for ''Endeavour''.

Like most colliers, ''Endeavour'' had a large hold, a sturdy construction that would tolerate grounding, was small enough to be careened for repairs, and had a small draft that enabled navigating in shallows. Upon completion of the first voyage, Cook wrote "It was to these properties in her, those on board owe their Preservation. Hence I was enabled to prosecute Discoveries in those Seas so much longer than any other Man ever did or could do." When selecting ships for his second voyage in 1772, Cook chose the same type of ship, from the same shipbuilder.

The Admiralty authorised a ship's company of 73 sailors and 12 Royal Marines. Cook's second lieutenant was Zachary Hicks, and his third lieutenant was John Gore, a 16-year Naval veteran who had already circumnavigated the world twice aboard HMS ''Dolphin''. Also on the ship were astronomer Charles Green and 25-year-old naturalist Joseph Banks. Banks provided funding for seven others to join the journey, including two naturalists, two artists, a secretary, and two servants.

Tahiti

The expedition departed England on 26 August 1768. Cook and his crew rounded Cape Horn and continued westward across the Pacific, arriving at Tahiti on 13 April 1769, where the observations of the transit were made. However, the result of the observations was not as conclusive or accurate as had been hoped. After the observations were completed, Cook was permitted to open the sealed orders, which instructed him to search for the postulated southern continent of ''Terra Australis''.
In May, Cook and some of his crew observed some Tahitians surfing becoming the first Europeans to witness the practice. Two marines deserted by taking local wives and going into hiding, intending to remain on the island. In response, Cook detained a Tahitian chief as a hostage to compel the local community to locate and return the deserters.

New Zealand

From Tahiti, Cook sailed to New Zealand andin October 1769landed in Poverty Bay near the Tūranganui River. With the aid of Tupaia, a Tahitian priest who had joined the expedition, Cook was the first European to communicate with the Māori. In spite of the translator, encounters with the Māori on the first two days were violent: a Māori was shot and killed on each of the days. Cook's approach to interactions with the Māori was to offer greetings and exchange gifts, in an attempt to establish friendly relations. But if his crew was threatened, he often ordered a quick and decisive use of force, despite his instructions from the Royal Society.

Cook then sailed around both of New Zealand's main islands, mapping the complete coastline. While doing so, in January 1770, Cook came upon Māori eating the flesh of enemies they had recently killed, which confirmed stories of cannibalism they had heard in Poverty Bay.

Australia

The expedition continued west and, on 19 April 1770, they sighted Point Hicks and became the first recorded Europeans to encounter Australia's eastern coastline. ''Endeavour'' continued northwards along the coastline, keeping the land in sight, while Cook charted and named landmarks along the way. On 23 April, Cook saw Aboriginal Australians for the first time at Brush Island near Bawley Point.

On 29 April, they made their first landfall on the continent in Botany Bay, at the east end of Silver Beach. In the expedition's first direct encounter with Aboriginal Australians, two Gweagal men of the Dharawal and Eora nation opposed the landing, and one of them was shot and wounded by Cook's crew. Cook and his crew stayed at Botany Bay for a week, exploring the surrounding area and collecting water, timber, fodder, and botanical specimens.

Cook attempted to establish relations with the indigenous population, butsince his translator Tupaia could not speak their languagethey were unable to communicate. In his journal, Cook affirmed the humanity of Aboriginal peoples, responding to accounts by explorer William Dampier whose descriptions of their appearance had led some Europeans to speculate on a supposed close relation to black Africans. At the time, apologists for slavery often argued that people of African descent were not of the same species as white Europeans, using such claims to justify the slave trade.

After departing Botany Bay, they continued northwards, hugging the coast and charting it. They stopped at Bustard Bay on 23 May 1770, then proceeded north through the shallow and extremely dangerous Great Barrier Reef. On 11 June ''Endeavour'' ran aground on the reef at high tide. The ship was stuck fast, so Cook ordered all excess weight thrown overboard, including six cannons and some of the ship's ballast. She was eventually hauled off after 27 hours, on the second high tide after the grounding. The ship was leaking badly, so the crew fothered the damage (hauling a spare sail under the ship to cover and slow the leak). Cook then careened the ship on a beach at the mouth of the Endeavour River for seven weeks while repairs were undertaken.

During the course of the repairs, the crew had the opportunity to explore the surrounding area, during which Cook observed a kangaroo for the first time. Lieutenant John Gore killed a specimen, and the species was documented by Banks. Cook remarked on the tranquility of the indigenous peoples, who did not covet material possessions, and would decline gifts, such as clothing, offered by the crew.

The voyage continued northward until they reached the northeast tip of Australia: Cape York. Searching for a vantage point to look for a route forward, Cook saw a hill on a nearby island. On 22 August 1770, he stood atop the island and claimed the entire Australian coast that he had surveyed as British territory, and named the island Possession Island. The expedition then turned west and continued homeward through the shallow and dangerous waters of the Torres Strait.

Return to England

In October 1770, Cook stopped in Batavia (modern Jakarta, Indonesia), where the Dutch dockyard facilities were used to inspect and repair the damage from running aground on the Great Barrier Reef. While in Batavia, seven of his crew died from dysentery, and 40 were sickened. From Batavia, he sailed to the Cape of Good Hope, then to the island of Saint Helena, arriving on 30 April 1771. The ship finally returned to England on 12 July 1771, anchoring in the Downs.

Shortly after his return, Cook was promoted in August 1771 to the rank of commander. A book based on the journals of Cook and Banks of the voyage was published in 1773. Banks received accolades from the press and the scientific community.

Second voyage (1772–1775)

In 1772, Cook was commissioned to lead another scientific expedition on behalf of the Royal Society, with the objective of determining the existence of the hypothetical continent ''Terra Australis''. Cook created a plan to probe southward in the southern summer, then retreat to more northerly, warmer, regions in the frigid southern winter.

This voyage would have two ships and, unlike the first voyage, Cook selected them himself: commanded by Cook, and , commanded by Tobias Furneaux. ''Resolution'' began her career as the North Sea collier ''Marquis of Granby'', launched at Whitby in 1770. She was fitted out at Deptford with the most advanced navigational aids of the day, including an azimuth compass, ice anchors, and an apparatus for distilling fresh water from sea water.

Banks planned to travel with Cook in the second voyage, but his excessive demands for modifications to the ship conflicted with the Admiralty's constraints, so he removed himself from the voyage before it departed. Banks was replaced by German naturalists Johann Reinhold Forster and his son, Georg Forster. The crew also included astronomer William Wales (responsible for the new K1 chronometer carried on the ''Resolution''), lieutenant Charles Clerke, and artist William Hodges.

Search for ''Terra Australis''

After departing England, the ships travelled south to South Africa and stopped at Cape Town in November 1772. From there they sailed eastward, planning to circumnavigate the globe roughly between 50°S and 70°S latitude. In late November 1772, the ships sighted their first icebergs and Cook performed an experiment: his crew retrieved blocks of ice and melted them onboard the ships, producing good quality fresh water, proving that drinking water could be obtained from sea ice. On 17 January 1773 the crews became the first recorded Europeans to cross the Antarctic Circle. Despite his mission to find ''Terra Australis'', Cook never sighted Antarctica in any of his voyages; but on 18 Januaryunbeknownst to himthe ships approached within of Antarctica.

In February 1773, in dense Antarctic fog, ''Resolution'' and ''Adventure'' became separated. Furneaux made his wayvia Tasmaniato a pre-arranged rendezvous point to be used in the event of separation: Queen Charlotte Sound in New Zealand. Cook joined Furneaux in New Zealand in May. The crews traded with the Māori people, and in his journal, Cook lamented the fact that Europeans were possibly transmitting diseases to the indigenous people and encouraging prostitution.

Tahiti and Tonga

In June, the ships departed New Zealand in the southern winterto resume their eastward search for ''Terra Australis''. About a month after leaving New Zealand, twenty crewmen aboard the ''Adventure'' contracted scurvyone of whom diedbecause Furneaux had failed to follow Cook's dietary instructions. The ships proceeded in a small anti-clockwise loop, visiting Tahiti and Tonga, planning to return to New Zealand together. Before reaching New Zealand, in the night of 29–30 October, the ships became separated for a second timethis time caused by a storm. Cook proceeded to the rendezvous point, and waited three weeks, then departed to continue the voyage alone.

Delayed by storms, Furneaux arrived at the designated rendezvous point in Queen Charlotte Sound five weeks after they separated, missing Cook by four days. While eleven members of the ''Adventure''’s crew were ashore gathering provisions, a violent altercation occurred with a group of Māori, resulting in the deaths of all the crewmen and two Māori. Furneaux later discovered the bodies of the crew members, partially burned in preparation for cannibalism. Many members of the ''Adventures crew wanted to exact revenge on the Māori, but Furneaux thought it prudent to avoid additional violence, so they left New Zealand and quickly returned to Britain, without Cook. When learning about the deaths much later, Cook wondered if Furneaux's crew was at fault, writing "I must ... observe in favour of the New Zealanders that I have always found them of a brave, noble, open and benevolent disposition".

Circuit around the South Pacific

After the missed rendezvous, ''Resolution'' made a large anti-clockwise loop in the south Pacific: heading far south, then visiting Easter Island, Tonga, and finally returning to New Zealand. In the first stretch of the large loop, the ''Resolution'' continued her search for ''Terra Australis'' by heading southeast, reaching her most southern latitude of 71°10′S in January 1774. At this point, the ship's progress was blocked by impenetrable pack ice, and Cook wrote in his private diary: "I will not say it was impossible anywhere to get in among this Ice, but I will assert that the bare attempting of it would be a very dangerous enterprise and what I believe no man in my situation would have thought of. I whose ambition leads me not only farther than any other man has been before me, but as far as I think it possible for man to go..."

In June 1774, the ship stopped to resupply at the island of Nomuka in Tonga, where most of the crew engaged in intimate relations with women. Cook was berated by an older woman after he declinedconsistent with his usual conductto engage in sexual relations with a young woman who had been offered to him. When Cook completed the large anti-clockwise circuit and returned to Queen Charlotte Sound, the Māori welcomed his arrival. In conversations with them, Cook heard confusing stories about a conflict with Europeans. Upon making inquiries, Cook learned that the ''Adventure'' had visited the area approximately eleven months earlier, but he remained unaware of the violent encounter that had led to the deaths of eleven of its crew.

Return to England

Leaving New Zealand, the ''Resolution'' proceeded home, sailing south of Tierra del Fuego, and stopping at South Georgia Island in January 1775, where Cook charted the coast and claimed the island group in the name of his king. From there, they continued eastward and discovered the South Sandwich Islands, then a stop in South Africa, andfinallynorth back to Britain.

The primary objective of the second voyage was to determine if the hypothesised continent ''Terra Australis'' existed. After the trip, the general consensus was that the landmass did not exist, because it was imagined to extend into the temperate latitudes, and Cook had demonstrated that no polar landmass reached beyond about 50°. Two books were published in 1777 about the expedition: one by Cook, and another by the Forsters.

Cook was promoted to the rank of post-captain and given an honorary retirement from the Royal Navy, with a posting as an officer of the Greenwich Hospital. He reluctantly accepted, insisting that he be allowed to quit the post if an opportunity for active duty should arise. His fame extended beyond the Admiralty: he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society and awarded the Copley Gold Medal for completing his second voyage without losing a man to scurvy. Nathaniel Dance-Holland painted his portrait; he dined with James Boswell; and he was described in the House of Lords as "the first navigator in Europe".

Third voyage (1776–1779)

The primary objective of Cook's third expedition was to search for a Northwest Passage connecting the north Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic. Simultaneously, the Admiralty was organizing a second expeditioncommanded by Richard Pickersgill, who had accompanied Cook on his first two voyagesto search for the Northwest Passage from the Atlantic side. To keep the goal of the mission secret, the Admiralty publicly declared that its aim was to return Polynesian native Omai to his home in Tahiti.

On this voyage, Cook again commanded the ''Resolution'', while Captain Charles Clerke commanded . Cook's lieutenants included John Gore and James King. William Bligh was the master. William Anderson was the surgeon (and also served as the voyage's botanist), William Bayly was the astronomer, and the official artist was John Webber. Among the midshipmen was George Vancouver. Welshman David Samwell served as the surgeon's mate.

Tahiti and Hawaii

The third voyage began by sailing south from England, around South Africa into the Indian Ocean, where they stopped, in December 1776, at the desolate Kerguelen Island. Walking on its beach, a seaman discovered a bottle containing a note written in Latin. The message had been left in January 1774 by the French explorer Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec. Cook instructed one of his officers to append an addendum to the note, identifying his own vessels and recording the date. He then proceeded to raise the British flag. From there, the expedition completed the first part of its mission by returning Omai to his homeland of Tahiti.

While on Tahiti, Cook was allowed to observe a multi-day ritual involving a human sacrifice. In October 1777, on the Tahitian island of Mo'orea, a goat belonging to the expedition was stolen by a local inhabitant. Cook organized a large search party and spent two days conducting an intensive search, destroying a large number of canoes and huts, until the goat was returned. Although several members of his crew considered the retaliation excessive, Cook did not record his reasoning for the destruction.

Cook continued northward andafter a brief stop at Kiritimati Atollbecame the first recorded European to see the Hawaiian Islands, on 18 January 1778. During this first visit to Hawaii, they made landfall at two locations: Waimea harbour on the island of Kauai, and the nearby island of Niihau. When he first stepped ashore, the Hawaiians prostrated themselves in front of Cook. One of Cook's crew, John Williamson, shot and killed a Hawaiian man while ashore collecting provisions, infuriating Cook. On Niihau, Cook left a pair of pigs for breeding, and pumpkin, melon, and onion seedscontinuing a practice he had followed on various islands throughout his voyages. Cook and his naturalists observed remarkable similarities between the cultures of Hawaii and Tahiti, including language, marae structures, religion, and treatment of the dead. He named the archipelago the "Sandwich Islands" after the fourth Earl of Sandwichthe First Lord of the Admiralty.

North America

From Hawaii, Cook sailed northeast to reach the west coast of North America and begin his search for a Northwest Passage. He sighted the Oregon coast at approximately 44°30′ north latitude, naming it Cape Foulweather, after the bad weather which forced his ships south to about 43° before they could begin their exploration of the coast northward. He unwittingly sailed past the Strait of Juan de Fuca and soon after entered Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island. Cook's two ships remained in Nootka Sound from 29 March to 26 April 1778, in a cove at the south end of Bligh Island. After leaving Nootka Sound, Cook explored and mapped the coast all the way to the Bering Strait, on the way identifying what came to be known as Cook Inlet in Alaska.

By the second week of August 1778, Cook had sailed through the Bering Strait, crossed the Arctic Circle, and sailed into the Chukchi Sea. He headed northeast up the coast of Alaska until he was blocked by sea ice at a latitude of 70°44′ north. Cook then sailed west to the Siberian coast, and then southeast down the Siberian coast back to the Bering Strait. During this voyage, Cook charted the majority of the North American northwest coastline for the first time, determined the extent of Alaska, and closed the gap between earlier explorations of the north Pacific the Russian (from the west) and the Spanish (from the south). By early September 1778, he was back in the Bering Sea on his way to return to Hawaii.

Some early biographers of Cook speculated that he became increasingly frustrated and irritable on this voyage: exhibiting irrational behaviour towards his crew, such as forcing them to eat walrus meat, which they considered inedible. However, other historians have rejected the suggestion, arguing that Cook's temperament on his final voyage was no different than on earlier voyages.

Return to Hawaii

Cook returned to Hawaii in late November 1778. The ships sailed throughout the archipelago for eight weeks, surveying and trading. After stops in Maui and Kauai, Cook made landfall at Kealakekua Bay on Hawaii Island, the largest island in the Hawaiian archipelago.

On Hawaii Island, Cook met with the Hawaiian king Kalaniʻōpuʻu, who treated Cook with respect, and invited him to participate in several ceremonies. The king and Cook exchanged gifts, and the king presented Cook with a feathered cloak. Several members of the expedition concluded that the Hawaiians considered Cook a deity, and that interpretation (specifically, that Cook was considered to be the Polynesian god Lono) has been endorsed by some scholars. The academic Gananath Obeyesekere, however, states that the Hawaiians did not consider Cook to be a deity.

Death

After a month on Hawaii Island, Cook set sail to resume his exploration of the northern Pacific, but shortly after departure a strong gale caused ''Resolution''s foremast to break, so the ships returned to Kealakekua Bay for repairs. Relations between the crew and the Hawaiians were already strained before the departure, and they grew worse when the ship returned for repairs. Numerous quarrels broke out and petty thefts were common. On 13 February 1779, a group of Hawaiians stole one of Cook's cutters.

The following day, Cook attempted to recover the cutter by kidnapping and ransoming the king, Kalaniʻōpuʻu. Cook and a small party marched through the village to retrieve the king. Cook led Kalaniʻōpuʻu away; as they got to the boats, one of Kalaniʻōpuʻu's favourite wives, Kānekapōlei, and two chiefs approached the group. They pleaded with the king not to go and a large crowd began to form at the shore. News reached the Hawaiians that high-ranking Hawaiian chief Kalimu had been shot (on the other side of the bay) while trying to break through a British blockade – this exacerbated the already tense situation. Hawaiian warriors confronted the landing party and threatened them with stones, clubs and daggers. Cook fired a warning shot, then shot one of the Hawaiians dead. The Hawaiians continued to attack and the British fired more shots before retreating to the boats. Cook and four marines were killed in the affray and left on the shore. Seventeen Hawaiians were killed.

Aftermath

The bodies of Cook and the marines were taken inland to a village by Hawaiians. King took a boat to the opposite side of the bay, and was approached by a priest who offered to intercede and ask for Cook's remains to be returned; King consented. Some crewmen returned to the location of the attack, and skirmishes broke out, resulting in the death of several Hawaiians. The following day, some of Cook's remains were returned to the ''Resolution'', including several bones, the skull, some charred flesh, and the hands with the skin still attached. Clerke assumed leadership of the expedition. The crew placed the remains in a weighted box, and buried their captain at sea.

The ships left the bay on 23 February 1779, and spent five weeks charting the coasts of the islandsin accordance with a plan set out by Cook before his death. They travelled through the archipelago, stopping at Lanai, Molokai, Oahu, and Kauai. On 1 April, they departed the Hawaiian islands and sailed north to again try to locate the Northwest Passage. Clerke stopped in Kamchatka and entrusted Cook's journal, with a cover letter describing Cook's death, to the local military commander, Magnus von Behm. Behm had the package delivered, overland, from Siberia to England. The Admiralty, and all of England, learned of Cook's death when the package arrived in Londoneleven months after he died; the package had arrived in England before the surviving crew.

Continuing north, the expedition made it to the Bering Strait, but was again blocked by pack ice, and unable to discover a Northwest Passage. Clerke died of tuberculosis on 22 August 1779 and John Gore, a veteran of Cook's first voyage, took command of the ''Resolution'' and the expedition. Lieutenant James King replaced Gore in command of ''Discovery''. The ships returned home, reaching England on 4 October 1780.

Personal life

On 21 December 1762, Cook married Elizabeth Batts, the daughter of Samuel Batts keeper of the Bell Inn in Wapping and one of Cook's mentorsat St Margaret's Church, Barking, Essex. The couple had six children: James (1763–1794), Nathaniel (1764–1780), Elizabeth (1767–1771), Joseph (1768–1768), George (1772–1772), and Hugh (1776–1793). Cook has no direct descendants – all of his children died before having children of their own. When not at sea, Cook lived in the East End of London and attended St Paul's Church, Shadwell.

Legacy

Health and disease

Cook was a pioneer in the prevention of scurvy and implemented several successful strategies, including regular replenishment of fresh food. During his first circumnavigation of the globe, he achieved the remarkable feat of not losing a single crew member to the diseasean uncommon outcome at the time. In addition to diet, Cook also promoted general hygiene by having the crew wash themselves frequently and air-out their bedding, clothes, and quarters. In recognition of his contributions to medical and naval science, he was awarded the prestigious Copley Medal by the Royal Society in 1776, following his presentation on scurvy prevention.

Many European explorersincluding members of Cook’s crewscarried communicable diseases such as syphilis, gonorrhoea, tuberculosis, malaria, dysentery, smallpox, influenza, and hepatitis. These diseases caused a significant decline in population in some local populations, who often had no natural resistance. Cook's crews transmitted some of these diseases to indigenous peoples in Tahiti, Hawaii, British Columbia, and New Zealand. In Hawaii, Cook’s crews were the first Europeans to introduce some diseases to the local population.

Cook took measures to mitigate the spread of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including issuing orders that prohibited women from boarding his ships and instructing his crew to refrain from sexual relations with indigenous women. In Hawaii, he specifically ordered that "no woman was to board either of the ships" and that any crew member known to have an STD was strictly forbidden from engaging in sexual activity, stating these directives were intended "to prevent as much as possible the communicating fthis fatal disease to a set of innocent people". Despite these efforts, Cook’s orders were frequently disregarded by members of his crew. Based on the journals of Cook and his crew, Cook never engaged in sexual relations with indigenous women during his voyages.

Navigation and science

Cook's three voyages to the Pacific Ocean vastly expanded Europeans' knowledge of the area. Several islands, including the Hawaiian group, were encountered for the first time by Europeans, and his accurate navigational charting of large areas of the Pacific contributed to the fields of hydrographic and geographic knowledge.

On his second and third voyages, Cook carried Larcum Kendall's K1 chronometera copy of John Harrison's H4to test if it could accurately keep time for extended periods while withstanding the violent motions of a ship. It performed well and thus made a key contribution to solving the longitude problem that had plagued mariners for centuries. Cook praised the timepiece profusely.

Cook and Banks were among the first Europeans to have extensive contact with a large number of peoples in the Pacific. They identified similarities between cultures and languages across many Pacific Islands, leading them to suggest that the populations shared a common origin in Asia. Significant observations and discoveries were made by the scientists that Cook carried on each his voyages: naturalists on the first voyage collected over 3,000 plant species; and those on the second voyage published '' Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World'', one of the first works which utilized a modern, interdisciplinary approach to geography.

Commemorations

Cook has been commemorated around the globe, primarily in Britain, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. Many statues and monuments have been erected to Cook. One of the earliest monuments to Cook in the United Kingdom is located at The Vache, erected in 1780 by Hugh Palliser, a friend of Cook. There is a monument to Cook in the church of St Andrew the Great, St Andrew's Street, Cambridge, where his wife and two of his sons are buried. There are statues of Cook in Hyde Park in Sydney, and at St Kilda in Melbourne.

Cook has appeared on many stamps and coins: Over four hundred stamps have been issued in his honor. Dozens of coins have been issued with Cook's image, including the 1928 U. S. Hawaii Sesquicentennial half-dollar, which carries Cook's image.

The Royal Research Ship RRS ''James Cook'' was built in 2006, and serves in the UK's Royal Research Fleet. NASA named several craft after Cook's ships, including the Apollo 15 Command/Service Module ''Endeavour'', the , and the .

An annual re-enactment of Cook's 1770 landing at the site of modern Cooktown, Australia, has taken place since 1959, with the support and participation of many of the local Guugu Yimithirr people. They celebrate the first act of reconciliation between Indigenous Australians and non-indigenous people, when a Guugu Yimithirr elder stepped in after some of Cook's men had violated custom by taking green turtles from the river and not sharing with the local people. He presented Cook with a broken-tipped spear as a peace offering, thus preventing possible bloodshed.

Many buildings and institutions are named after him, including James Cook University, which opened in Townsville, Australia in 1970, and James Cook University Hospital, in Middlesbrough, England a major teaching hospital which opened in 2003, near the James Cook railway station.

Ethnographic collections

The Australian Museum in Sydney holds over 250 objects associated with Cook's voyages. The objects are mostly from Polynesia, although there are also artefacts from the Solomon Islands, North America and South America. Many of the artefacts were collected during first contact between Europeans and indigenous peoples of the Pacific. The largest collection of artefacts from Cook's voyages is the Cook-Forster Collection held at the University of Göttingen.

Controversy

Cook is a controversial figure due several violent encounters with indigenous peoples, and allegations that he facilitated British colonialism. Cook and his crew killed an estimated 45 indigenous people during the three voyages, including nine Māori and thirty Hawaiians.

Scholars continue to debate the extent to which Cook can be held responsible for the subsequent European colonisation of the Pacific. A number of commentators argue that Cook enabled British imperialism and colonialism in the Pacific. The historian Glyndwr Williams points out that the Admiralty's orders to Cook on the first voyage explicitly required Cook to obtain consent of indigenous peoples before claiming the land for Britainyet Cook claimed the east coast of Australia without securing their consent.

The historian Robert Tombs defended Cook against accusations that he initiated British imperialism in the Pacific, arguing that European influence in the region was inevitable, and that Cook was more humane and enlightened than most of his contemporaries. Tombs suggested that blaming Cook for 21st century racism and inequities is facile and avoids addressing the underlying social issues.

The period 2018 to 2021 marked the 250th anniversary of Cook's first voyage of exploration. Several countries, including Australia and New Zealand, arranged official events to commemorate the voyage, leading to widespread public debate about Cook's legacy and the violence associated with his contacts with indigenous peoples. In the lead-up to the commemorations, various memorials to Cook in Australia and New Zealand were vandalised, and there were public calls for their removal or modification due to their alleged promotion of colonialist narratives. Attacks on public monuments to Cook have continued in a number of countries.

Indigenous people have also campaigned for the return of indigenous artefacts taken during Cook's voyages. The art historian Alice Proctor has suggested that the controversies over public representations of Cook and the display of indigenous artefacts from his voyages are part of a broader debate over resistance to colonialist narratives and the decolonisation of museums and public spaces.
Chapters 11 and 12 are most relevant to Cook.

Heraldic arms

See also

* '' Death of Cook''Paintings depicting Cook's death
* European and American voyages of scientific exploration
* List of Australian places named by James Cook
* List of places named after Captain James Cook
* New Zealand places named by James Cook

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

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* Sometimes titled ''The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery Vol. IV: The Life of Captain James Cook.''

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* Abridged version of the journals, based on the original three volumes of manuscripts by John Beaglehole, published from 1955–1967.

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* Originally published in 1992, with a new Afterword (pp. 197–250) called "De-Sahlinization" added in the 1997 reprint, which discusses the Sahlins controversy.

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* The original journal of David Samwell, written during the third voyage.

* Book about the third voyage, written several years after the expedition.

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Further reading

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* Reprinted in 2017 by Taylor & Francis.

* Reprinted in 2017 by Taylor & Francis.

* Two volumes:
Volume 1Volume 2


* A picture book with a wide variety of works by artists that accompanied Cook.

* First published in 1777 as ''A Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5''

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External links

* - Digitised books and documents
* – Digitised books and documents
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Journals

Journal from Cook's second voyage
– High-resolution digitised version at the Cambridge Digital Library


= Held by the National Library of Australia

The South Seas Project
– Maps and online copies of journals, including Banks' journal. Includes John Hawkesworth's account of Cook's first voyage.

Collections and museums

American Geographical Society Library
– Collection of maps made by Cook
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Captain Cook Birthplace Museum Marton

Captain Cook Memorial Museum Whitby

Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
– Collection of items related to Cook

National Museum of Australia – Cook-Forster
– Artefacts collected during the voyages of Cook

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cook, James

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