Assamese-language Mass Media

Assamese () or Asamiya ( ) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken mainly in the north-eastern Indian state of Assam, where it is an official language. It has long served as a ''lingua franca'' in parts of Northeast India."Axomiya is the major language spoken in Assam, and serves almost as a lingua franca among the different speech communities in the whole area." It has over 15 million native speakers and 8.3 million second language speakers according to ''Ethnologue''.

Nefamese, an Assamese-based pidgin in Arunachal Pradesh, was used as a lingua franca till it was replaced by Hindi; and Nagamese, an Assamese-based Creole language, continues to be widely used in Nagaland. The Kamtapuri language of Rangpur division of Bangladesh and the Cooch Behar and Jalpaiguri districts of India is linguistically closer to Assamese, though the speakers identify with the Bengali culture and the literary language. In the past, it was the court language of the Ahom kingdom from the 17th century.

Along with other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Assamese evolved at least before the 7th century CE from the middle Indo-Aryan Magadhi Prakrit. Its sister languages include Angika, Bengali, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Noakhali, Chakma, Chittagonian, Hajong, Rajbangsi, Maithili, Rohingya and Sylheti. It is written in the Assamese alphabet, an abugida system, from left to right, with many typographic ligatures.

Assamese was designated as a classical Indian language by the Government of India on 3 October 2024 on account of its antiquity and literary traditions.

History

Assamese originated in Old Indo-Aryan dialects, though the exact nature of its origin and growth is not clear yet. It is generally believed that Assamese and the Kamatapuri lects derive from the Kamarupi dialect of Eastern Magadhi Prakrit"Dr. S. K. Chatterji basing his conclusions on the materials accumulated in LSI, Part I, and other monographs on the Bengali dialects, divides Eastern Mag. Pkt. and Ap. into four dialect groups. (1) Raddha dialects which comprehend Western Bengali which gives standard Bengali colloquial and Oriya in the South West. (2) Varendra dialects of North Central Bengal. (3) Kumarupa dialects which comprehend Assamese and the dialects of North Bengal. (4) Vanga dialects which comprehend the dialects of East Bengal (ODBL VolI p140)." though some authors contest a close connection of Assamese with Magadhi Prakrit. The Indo-Aryan, which appeared in the 4th–5th century in Assam, was probably spoken in the new settlements of Kamarupa—in urban centers and along the Brahmaputra river—surrounded by Tibeto-Burman and Austroasiatic communities. Kakati's (1941) assertion that Assamese has an Austroasiatic substrate is generally assumed—which suggests that when the Indo-Aryan centers formed in the 4th–5th centuries CE, there were substantial Austroasiatic speakers that later accepted the Indo-Aryan vernacular."While Kakati's assertion of an Austroasiatic substrate needs to be re-established on the basis of more systematic evidence, it is consistent with the general assumption that the lower Brahmaputra drainage was originally Austroasiatic speaking. It also implies the existence of a substantial Austroasiatic speaking population till the time of spread of Aryan culture into Assam, i.e. it implies that up until the 4th-5th centuries CE and probably much later Tibeto-Burman languages had not completely supplanted Austroasiatic languages." Based on the 7th-century Chinese traveller Xuanzang's observations, suggests that the Indo-Aryan vernacular differentiated itself in Kamarupa before it did in Bengal, and that these differences could be attributed to non-Indo-Aryan speakers adopting the language. The newly differentiated vernacular, from which Assamese eventually emerged, is evident in the Prakritisms present in the Sanskrit of the Kamarupa inscriptions.

Magadhan and Gauda-Kamarupa stages

The earliest forms of Assamese in literature are found in the 9th-century Buddhist verses called Charyapada the language of which bear affinities with Assamese (as well as Bengali, Maithili and Odia) and which belongs to a period when the Prakrit was at the cusp of differentiating into regional languages. The spirit and expressiveness of the ''Charyadas'' are today found in the folk songs called ''Deh-Bicarar Git''.

In the 12th-14th century works of Ramai Pundit (''Sunya Puran''), Boru Chandidas (''Krishna Kirtan''), Sukur Mamud (''Gopichandrar Gan''), Durllava Mullik (''Gobindachandrar Git'') and Bhavani Das (''Mainamatir Gan'') Assamese grammatical peculiarities coexist with features from Bengali language. Though the Gauda-Kamarupa stage is generally accepted and partially supported by recent linguistic research, it has not been fully reconstructed.

Early Assamese

A distinctly Assamese literary form appeared first in the 13th-century in the courts of the Kamata kingdom when Hema Sarasvati composed the poem ''Prahlāda Carita''. In the 14th-century, Madhava Kandali translated the Ramayana into Assamese ( Saptakanda Ramayana) in the court of Mahamanikya, a Kachari king from central Assam. Though the Assamese idiom in these works is fully individualised, some archaic forms and conjunctive particles too are found. This period corresponds to the common stage of proto-Kamta and early Assamese.

The emergence of Sankardev's Ekasarana Dharma in the 15th century triggered a revival in language and literature. Sankardev produced many translated works and created new literary forms—''Borgeets'' (songs), '' Ankia Naat'' (one-act plays)—infusing them with Brajavali idioms; and these were sustained by his followers Madhavdev and others in the 15th and subsequent centuries. In these writings the 13th/14th-century archaic forms are no longer found. Sankardev pioneered a prose-style of writing in the ''Ankia Naat''. This was further developed by Bhattadeva who translated the Bhagavata Purana and Bhagavad Gita into Assamese prose. Bhattadev's prose was classical and restrained, with a high usage of Sanskrit forms and expressions in an Assamese syntax; and though subsequent authors tried to follow this style, it soon fell into disuse. In this writing the first person future tense ending ''-m'' (''korim'': "will do"; ''kham'': "will eat") is seen for the first time.

Middle Assamese

The language moved to the court of the Ahom kingdom in the seventeenth century,"Incidentally, literate Ahoms retained the Tai language and script well until the end of the 17th century. In that century of Ahom-Mughal conflicts, this language first coexisted with and then was progressively replaced by Assamese (Asamiya) at and outside the Court." where it became the state language. In parallel, the proselytising Ekasarana dharma converted many Bodo-Kachari peoples and there emerged many new Assamese speakers who were speakers of Tibeto-Burman languages. This period saw the emergence of different styles of secular prose in medicine, astrology, arithmetic, dance, music, besides religious biographies and the archaic prose of magical charms.

Most importantly this was also when Assamese developed a standardised prose in the Buranjis—documents related to the Ahom state dealing with diplomatic writings, administrative records and general history. The language of the Buranjis is nearly modern with some minor differences in grammar and with a pre-modern orthography. The Assamese plural suffixes (''-bor'', ''-hat'') and the conjunctive participles (''-gai'': ''dharile-gai''; ''-hi'': ''pale-hi'', ''baril-hi'') become well established. The Buranjis, dealing with statecraft, was also the vehicle by which Arabic and Persian elements crept into the language in abundance. Due to the influence of the Ahom state the speech in eastern Assam took a homogeneous and standard form. The general schwa deletion that occurs in the final position of words came into use in this period.

Modern Assamese

The modern period of Assamese begins with printing—the publication of the Assamese Bible in 1813 from the Serampore Mission Press. But after the British East India Company (EIC) removed the Burmese in 1826 and took complete administrative control of Assam in 1836, it filled administrative positions with people from Bengal, and introduced Bengali language in its offices, schools and courts. The EIC had earlier promoted the development of Bengali to replace Persian, the language of administration in Mughal India, and maintained that Assamese was a dialect of Bengali.

Amidst this loss of status the American Baptist Mission (ABM) established a press in Sibsagar in 1846 leading to publications of an Assamese periodical ('' Orunodoi''), the first Assamese grammar by Nathan Brown (1846), and the first Assamese-English dictionary by Miles Bronson (1863). The ABM argued strongly with the EIC officials in an intense debate in the 1850s to reinstate Assamese. Among the local personalities Anandaram Dhekial Phukan drew up an extensive catalogue of medieval Assamese literature (among other works) and pioneered the effort among the natives to reinstate Assamese in Assam. Though this effort was not immediately successful the administration eventually declared Assamese the official vernacular in 1873 on the eve of Assam becoming a Chief Commissioner's Province in 1874.

Standardisation

In the extant medieval Assamese manuscripts the orthography was not uniform. The ABM had evolved a phonemic orthography based on a contracted set of characters. Working independently Hemchandra Barua provided an etymological orthography and his etymological dictionary, '' Hemkosh'', was published posthumously. He also provided a Sanskritised approach to the language in his ''Asamiya Bhaxar Byakaran'' ("Grammar of the Assamese Language") (1859, 1873). Barua's approach was adopted by the '' Asamiya Bhasa Unnati Sadhini Sabha'' (1888, "Assamese Language Development Society") that emerged in Kolkata among Assamese students led by Lakshminath Bezbaroa. The ''Society'' published a periodical '' Jonaki'' and the period of its publication, ''Jonaki era'', saw spirited negotiations on language standardisation. What emerged at the end of those negotiations was a standard close to the language of the Buranjis with the Sanskritised orthography of Hemchandra Barua.

As the political and commercial center moved to Guwahati in the mid-twentieth century, of which Dispur the capital of Assam is a suburb and which is situated at the border between the western and central dialect speaking regions, standard Assamese used in media and communications today is a neutral blend of the eastern variety without its distinctive features. This core is further embellished with Goalpariya and Kamrupi idioms and forms.

Geographical distribution

Assamese is native to Assam. It is also spoken in states of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland. The Bengali-Assamese script can be found in of present-day Burma. The Pashupatinath Temple in Nepal also has inscriptions in Bengali-Assamese script showing its influence in the past.

There is a significant Assamese-speaking diaspora worldwide.

Official status

Assamese is the official language of Assam, and one of the 22 official languages recognised by the Republic of India. The Assam Secretariat functions in Assamese.

Phonology

The Assamese phonemic inventory consists of eight vowels, ten diphthongs, and twenty-three consonants (including two semivowels).Assamese
, Resource Centre for Indian Language Technology Solutions, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati.

Consonant clusters

Alveolar stops

The Assamese phoneme inventory is unique in the group of Indo-Aryan languages as it lacks a dental-retroflex distinction among the coronal stops as well as the lack of postalveolar affricates and fricatives. Historically, the dental and retroflex series merged into alveolar stops. This makes Assamese resemble non-Indic languages of Northeast India (such as Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan languages). The only other language to have fronted retroflex stops into alveolars is the closely related group of eastern dialects of Bengali (although a contrast with dental stops remains in those dialects). is normally realised as or .

Voiceless velar fricative

Assamese is unusual among Eastern Indo-Aryan languages for the presence of (realised as or , depending on the speaker and speech register), due historically to the MIA sibilants' lenition to (initially) and (non-initially). The use of the voiceless velar fricative is heavy in the eastern Assamese dialects and decreases progressively to the west—from Kamrupi to eastern Goalparia, and disappears completely in western Goalpariya. The change of to and then to has been attributed to Tibeto-Burman influence by Suniti Kumar Chatterjee.

In some cases, can even merge with or (''akhɔr'' → ''axɔr'' "a letter (of an alphabet)").

Velar nasal

Assamese, Odia, and Bengali, in contrast to other Indo-Aryan languages, use the velar nasal (the English ''ng'' in ''sing'') extensively. While in many languages, the velar nasal is commonly restricted to preceding velar sounds, in Assamese it can occur intervocalically. This is another feature it shares with other languages of Northeast India, though in Assamese the velar nasal never occurs word-initially.

Vowel inventory

Eastern Indic languages like Assamese, Bengali, Sylheti, and Odia do not have a vowel length distinction, but have a wide set of back rounded vowels. In the case of Assamese, there are four back rounded vowels that contrast phonemically, as demonstrated by the minimal set: ''kola'' ('deaf'), ''kóla'' ('black'), ''kwla'' ('lap'), and ''kula'' ('winnowing fan'). The near-close near-back rounded vowel is unique in this branch of the language family. But in lower Assam, ও is pronounced the same as অ' (ó): compare ''kwla'' and ''mwr'' .

Vowel harmony

Assamese has vowel harmony. The vowels and cause the preceding mid vowels and the high back vowels to change to and and respectively. Assamese is one of the few languages spoken in India which exhibit a systematic process of vowel harmony.

Schwa deletion

The inherent vowel in standard Assamese, //, follows deletion rules analogous to " schwa deletion" in other Indian languages. Assamese follows a slightly different set of "schwa deletion" rules for its modern standard and early varieties. In the modern standard // is generally deleted in the final position unless it is (1) /w/ (); or (2) /j/ () after higher vowels like /i/ () or /u/ (); though there are a few additional exceptions. The rule for deleting the final // was not followed in Early Assamese.

The initial // is never deleted.

Writing system

Modern Assamese uses the Assamese alphabet. In medieval times, the script came in three varieties: ''Bamuniya'', ''Garhgaya'', and ''Kaitheli/Lakhari'', which developed from the Kamarupi script. It very closely resembles the Mithilakshar script of the Maithili language, as well as the Bengali alphabet. There is a strong literary tradition from early times. Examples can be seen in edicts, land grants and copper plates of medieval kings. Assam had its own manuscript writing system on the bark of the '' saanchi'' tree in which religious texts and chronicles were written, as opposed to the pan-Indian system of Palm leaf manuscript writing. The present-day spellings in Assamese are not necessarily phonetic. '' Hemkosh'' ( ), the second Assamese dictionary, introduced spellings based on Sanskrit, which are now the standard.

Assamese has also historically been written using the Arabic script by Assamese Muslims. One example is ''Tariqul Haq Fi Bayane Nurul Haq'' by Zulqad Ali (1796–1891) of Sivasagar, which is one of the oldest works in modern Assamese prose.

In the early 1970s, it was agreed upon that the Roman script was to be the standard writing system for Nagamese Creole. In January 2020, the Assam government announced that Assamese would be a mandatory language for government job eligibility.

Sample text

The following is a portion from the story ''Silonir ziekor xadhu (The tale of the kite's daughter)'', written by Lakshminath Bezbaruah in his book Burhi Aair Xadhu:

Morphology and grammar

The Assamese language has the following characteristic morphological features:
* Gender and number are not grammatically marked.
* There is a lexical distinction of gender in the third person pronoun.
* Transitive verbs are distinguished from intransitive.
* The agentive case is overtly marked as distinct from the accusative.
* Kinship nouns are inflected for personal pronominal possession.
* Adverbs can be derived from the verb roots.
* A passive construction may be employed idiomatically.

Negation process

Verbs in Assamese are negated by adding before the verb, with picking up the initial vowel of the verb. For example:
* 'do(es) not want' (1st, 2nd and 3rd persons)
* 'will not write' (1st person)
* 'will not nibble' (1st person)
* 'does not count' (3rd person)
* 'do not do' (2nd person)

Classifiers

Assamese has a large collection of classifiers, which are used extensively for different kinds of objects, acquired from the Sino-Tibetan languages. A few examples of the most extensive and elaborate use of classifiers are given below:
*"''zɔn''" is used to signify a person, male with some amount of respect
**E.g., manuh-''zɔn'' – "the man"
*"''zɔni''" (female) is used after a noun or pronoun to indicate human beings
**E.g., manuh-''zɔni'' – "the woman"
*"''zɔni''" is also used to express the non-human feminine
**E.g., sɔɹai ''zɔni'' – "the bird", pɔɹuwa-''zɔni'' – "the ant"
*"''zɔna''" and "''gɔɹaki''" are used to express high respect for both man and woman
**E.g., kɔbi-''zɔna'' – "the poet", gʊxaɪ-''zɔna'' – "the goddess", rastrapati-''gɔɹaki'' – "the president", tiɹʊta-''gɔɹaki'' – "the woman"
*"''tʊ''" has three forms: ''tʊ'', ''ta'', ''ti''
**(a) tʊ: is used to specify something, although the case of someone, e.g., loɹa-''tʊ'' – "the particular boy", is impolite
**(b) ta: is used only after numerals, e.g., ɛ''ta'', du''ta'', tini''ta'' – "one, two, three"
**(c) ti: is the diminutive form, e.g., kesua-''ti'' – "the infant, besides expressing more affection or attachment to
*"''kɔsa''", "''mɔtʰa''" and "''taɹ''" are used for things in bunches
**E.g., sabi-''kɔsa'' – "the bunch of key", saul-''mɔtʰa'' – "a handful of rice", suli-''taɹi'' or suli ''kɔsa'' – "the bunch of hair"
*''dal'', ''dali'', are used after nouns to indicate something long but round and solid
**E.g., bãʱ-''dal'' – "the bamboo", katʰ-''dal'' – "the piece of wood", bãʱ-''dali'' – "the piece of bamboo"

In Assamese, classifiers are generally used in the ''numeral + classifier + noun'' (e.g. ejon manuh 'one man') or the ''noun + numeral + classifier'' (e.g. manuh ejon 'one man') forms.

Nominalization

Most verbs can be converted into nouns by the addition of the suffix . For example, ('to eat') can be converted to khaon ('good eating').

Grammatical cases

Assamese has 8 grammatical cases:

Pronouns

m=''male'', f=''female'', n=''neuter.'', *=''the person or object is near.'', **=''the person or object is far.'', v =''very familiar, inferior'', f=''familiar'', p=''polite'', e=''ergative form''.

Tense

With consonant ending verb likh (write) and vowel ending verb kha (eat, drink, consume).

For different types of verbs.
{, class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" align="center" style="font-size:80%"
, -
!rowspan="2", Tense
!rowspan="2", Person
!colspan="2", tho "put"
!colspan="2", kha "consume"
!colspan="2", pi "drink"
!colspan="2", de "give"
!colspan="2", dhu "wash"
!colspan="2", kor "do"
!colspan="2", randh "cook"
!colspan="2", ah "come"
, -
!+
!-
!+
!-
!+
!-
!+
!-
!+
!-
!+
!-
!+
!-
!+
!-
, -
!rowspan="4", Simple Present
!1stper.
, thoü
, nothoü
, khaü
, nakhaü ~ nekhaü
, piü
, nipiü
, diü
, nidiü
, dhüü
, nüdhüü
, korü
, nokorü
, randhü
, narandhü ~ nerandhü
, ahü
, nahü
, -
!2ndper.inf.
, thoo
, nothoo
, khao
, nakhao ~ nekhao
, pio
, nipio
, dio
, nidio
, dhüo
, nüdhüo
, koro
, nokoro
, randho
, narandho ~ nerandho
, aho
, naho
, -
!2ndper.pol.
, thüa
, nüthüa
, khüa
, nükhüa
, pia
, nipia
, dia
, nidia
, dhüa
, nüdhüa
, kora
, nokora
, randha
, narandha ~ nerandha
, aha
, naha
, -
!2ndper.hon.&3rdper.
, thoe
, nothoe
, khae
, nakhae ~ nekhae
, pie
, nipie
, die
, nidie
, dhüe
, nüdhüe
, kore
, nokore
, randhe
, narandhe ~ nerandhe
, ahe
, nahe
, -
!rowspan="4", Present continuous
!1st per.
, thói asw
, rowspan="4", thoi thoka nai
, khai asw
, rowspan="4", khai thoka nai
, pi asu
, rowspan="4", pi thoka nai
, di asw
, rowspan="4", di thoka nai
, dhui asw
, rowspan="4", dhui thoka nai
, kori asw
, rowspan="4", kóri thoka nai
, randhi asw
, rowspan="4", randhi thoka nai
, ahi asw
, rowspan="4", ahi thoka nai
, -
!2ndper.inf.
, thoi aso
, khai aso
, pi aso
, di aso
, dhui aso
, kori aso
, randhi aso
, ahi aso
, -
!2ndper.pol.
, thoi asa
, khai asa
, pi asa
, di asa
, dhui asa
, kori asa
, randhi asa
, ahi asa
, -
!2ndper.hon.&3rdper.
, thoi ase
, khai ase
, pi ase
, di ase
, dhui ase
, kori ase
, randhi ase
, ahi ase
, -
!rowspan="4", Present Perfect
!1st per.
, thoisw
, rowspan="4", thwa nai
, khaisw
, rowspan="4", khwa nai
, pisw
, rowspan="4", pia nai
, disw
, rowspan="4", dia nai
, dhui asw
, rowspan="4", dhwa nai
, korisw
, rowspan="4", kora nai
, randhisw
, rowspan="4", rondha nai
, ahi asw
, rowspan="4", oha nai
, -
!2ndper.inf.
, thóisó
, khaisó
, pisó
, disó
, dhuisó
, kórisó
, randhisó
, ahisó
, -
!2nd per. pol.
, thoisa
, khaisa
, pisa
, disa
, dhuisa
, korisa
, randhisa
, ahisa
, -
!2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.
, thoise
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, dise
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, korise
, randhise
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, -
!rowspan="4", Recent Past
!1st per.
, thölw
, nothölw
, khalw
, nakhalw ~ nekhalw
, pilw
, nipilw
, dilw
, nidilw
, dhulw
, nudhulw
, korilw
, nokórilw
, randhilw
, narandhilw ~ nerandhilw
, ahilw
, nahilw
, -
!2nd per. inf.
, thöli
, nothöli
, khali
, nakhali ~ nekhali
, pili
, nipili
, dili
, nidili
, dhuli
, nudhuli
, kórili
, nókórili
, randhili
, narandhili ~ nerandhili
, ahilw
, nahilw
, -
!2nd per. pol.
, thöla
, nothöla
, khala
, nakhala ~ nekhala
, pila
, nipila
, dila
, nidila
, dhula
, nudhula
, kórila
, nókórila
, randhila
, narandhila ~ nerandhila
, ahila
, nahila
, -
!2ndper.hon.&3rdper.
, thöle
, nothöle
, khale
, nakhale ~ nekhale
, pile
, nipile
, dile
, nidile
, dhule
, nudhule
, kórile
, nókórile
, randhile
, narandhile ~ nerandhile
, ahile / ahil^tr
, nahile / nahil^tr
, -
!rowspan="4", Distant Past
!1st per.
, thoisilw
, nothoisilw ~ thwa nasilw
, khaisilw
, nakhaisilw ~ nekhaisilw ~ khwa nasilw
, pisilw
, nipisilw ~ pia nasilw
, disilw
, nidisilw ~ dia nasilw
, dhuisilw
, nudhuisilw ~ dhüa nasilw
, kórisilw
, nókórisilw ~ kora nasilw
, randhisilw
, narandhisilw ~ nerandhisilw ~ rondha nasilw
, ahisilw
, nahisilw ~ oha nasilw
, -
!2nd per. inf.
, thoisili
, nothóisili ~ thwa nasili
, khaisili
, nakhaisili ~ nekhaisili ~ khwa nasili
, pisili
, nipisili ~ pia nasili
, disili
, nidisili ~ dia nasili
, dhuisili
, nudhuisili ~ dhwa nasili
, korisili
, nokorisili ~ kora nasili
, randhisili
, narandhisili ~ nerandhisili ~ rondha nasili
, ahisili
, nahisili ~ oha nasili
, -
!2nd per. pol.
, thoisila
, nothóisila ~ thwa nasila
, khaisila
, nakhaisila ~ nekhaisila ~ khüa nasila
, pisila
, nipisila ~ pia nasila
, disila
, nidisila ~ dia nasila
, dhuisila
, nudhuisila ~ dhwa nasila
, korisila
, nokorisila ~ kora nasila
, randhisila
, narandhisila ~ nerandhisila ~ rondha nasila
, ahisila
, nahisila ~ oha nasila
, -
!2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.
, thoisile
, nothoisile ~ thwa nasile
, khaisile
, nakhaisile ~ nekhaisile ~ khwa nasile
, pisile
, nipisile ~ pia nasile
, disile
, nidisile ~ dia nasile
, dhuisile
, nudhuisile ~ dhüa nasile
, korisile
, nokorisile ~ kora nasile
, randhisile
, narandhisile ~ nerandhisile ~ rondha nasile
, ahisile
, nahisile ~ oha nasile
, -
, -
!rowspan="4", Past continuous
!1st per.
, thoi asilw
, thoi thoka nasilw
, khai asilw
, khai thoka nasilw
, pi asilw
, pi thoka nasilw
, di asilw
, di thoka nasilw
, dhui asils
, dhui thoka nasils
, kori asils
, kori thoka nasils
, randhi asils
, randhi thoka nasils
, ahi asils
, ahi thoka nasils
, -
!2nd per. inf.
, thoi asili
, thoi thoka nasili
, khai asili
, khai thoka nasili
, pi asili
, pi thoka nasili
, di asili
, di thoka nasili
, dhui asili
, dhui thoka nasili
, kori asili
, kori thoka nasili
, randhi asili
, randhi thoka nasili
, ahi asili
, ahi thoka nasili
, -
!2nd per. pol.
, thoi asila
, thoi thoka nasila
, khai asila
, khai thoka nasila
, pi asila
, pi thoka nasila
, di asila
, di thoka nasila
, dhui asila
, dhui thoka nasila
, kori asila
, kori thoka nasila
, randhi asila
, randhi thoka nasila
, ahi asila
, ahi thoka nasila
, -
!2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.
, thoi asil(e)
, thoi thoka nasil(e)
, khai asil(e)
, khai thoka nasil(e)
, pi asil(e)
, pi thoka nasil(e)
, di asil(e)
, di thoka nasil(e)
, dhui asil(e)
, dhui thoka nasil(e)
, kori asil(e)
, kori thoka nasil(e)
, randhi asil(e)
, randhi thoka nasil(e)
, ahi asil{e)
, ahi thoka nasil(e)
, -
!rowspan="4", Simple Future
!1st per.
, thöm
, nothöm
, kham
, nakham ~ nekham
, pim
, nipim
, dim
, nidim
, dhum
, nudhum
, korim
, nokorim
, randhim
, narandhim ~ nerandhim
, ahim
, nahim
, -
!2nd per. inf.
, thöbi
, nothöbi
, khabi
, nakhabi ~ nekhabi
, pibi
, nipibi
, dibi
, nidibi
, dhubi
, nudhubi
, koribi
, nokoribi
, randhibi
, narandhibi ~ nerandhibi
, ahibi
, nahibi
, -
!2nd per. pol.
, thöba
, nothöba
, khaba
, nakhaba ~ nekhaba
, piba
, nipiba
, diba
, nidiba
, dhuba
, nudhuba
, koriba
, nókóriba
, randhiba
, narandhiba ~ nerandhiba
, ahiba
, nahiba
, -
!2ndper.hon.&3rdper.
, thöbo
, nothöbo
, khabo
, nakhabo ~ nekhabo
, pibo
, nipibo
, dibo
, nidibo
, dhubo
, nudhubo
, koribo
, nokoribo
, randhibo
, narandhibo ~ nerandhibo
, ahibo
, nahibo
, -
!rowspan="4", Future continuous
!1st per.
, thoi thakim
, thoi nathakim/nethakim
, khai thakim
, khai nathakim/nethakim
, pi thakim
, pi nathakim/nethakim
, di thakim
, di nathakim/nethakim
, dhui thakim
, dhui nathakim/nethakim
, kori thakim
, kori nathakim/nethakim
, randhi thakim
, randhi nathakim/nethakim
, ahi thakim
, ahi nathakim/nethakim
, -
!2nd per. inf.
, thoi thakibi
, thoi nathakibi/nethakibi
, khai thakibi
, khai nathakibi/nethakibi
, pi thakibi
, pi nathakibi/nethakibi
, di thakibi
, di nathakibi/nethakibi
, dhui thakibi
, dhui nathakibi/nethakibi
, kori thakibi
, kori nathakibi/nethakibi
, randhi thakibi
, randhi nathakibi/nethakibi
, ahi thakibi
, ahi nathakibi/nethakibi
, -
!2nd per. pol.
, thoi thakiba
, thoi nathakiba/nethakiba
, khai thakiba
, khai nathakiba/nethakiba
, pi thakiba
, pi nathakiba/nethakiba
, di thakiba
, di nathakiba/nethakiba
, dhui thakiba
, dhui nathakiba/nethakiba
, kori thakiba
, kori nathakiba/nethakiba
, randhi thakiba
, randhi nathakiba/nethakiba
, ahi thakiba
, ahi nathakiba/nethakiba
, -
!2ndper.hon.&3rdper.
, thoi thakibo
, thoi nathakibo/nethakibo
, khai thakibo
, khai nathakibo/nethakibo
, pi thakibo
, pi nathakibo/nethakibo
, di thakibo
, di nathakibo/nethakibo
, dhui thakibo
, dhui nathakibo/nethakibo
, kori thakibo
, kori nathakibo/nethakibo
, randhi thakibo
, randhi nathakibo/nethakibo
, ahi thakibo
, ahi nathakibo/nethakibo
, -

Relationship suffixes

{, class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" align="center" style="font-size:80%"
, -
! Persons !! Suffix !! Example !! English translation
, -
! 1st person
, none
, Mwr/Amar ma, bap, kokai, vai, ba, voni
, My/Our mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister
, -
! 2nd person
(very familiar; inferior)
, -(e)r
, Twr/Tohõtor mar, baper, kokaier, vaier, bar, vonier
, Your/Your(pl) mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister
, -
! 2nd person
familiar
, -(e)ra
, Twmar/Twmalwkor mara, bapera, kokaiera, vaiera, bara, voniera
, Your/Your(pl) mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister
, -
! 2nd person
formal;
3rd person
, -(e)k
, Apwnar/Apwnalwkor/Tar/Tair/Xihotõr/Tewr mak, bapek, kokaiek, bhaiek, bak, voniek
, Your/Your(pl)/His/Her/Their/His~Her(formal) mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister

Kinship Terms

Some Assamese Kinship Terms with IPA and English Equivalents
{, class="wikitable"
!Sr. No.
!Assamese Word
!IPA
!English Word
, -
, 1
, দেউতা
, /dɛuta/
, Father
, -
, 2
, আই/মা
, /ai/ /mɑ/
, Mother
, -
, 3
, দাদা
, /dada/
, Elder Brother
, -
, 4
, ভাই
, /bhai/
, Younger Brother
, -
, 5
, বাইদেউ
, /bɑɪ.dɛʊ/
, Elder Sister
, -
, 6
, ভনী
, /bhɔni/
, Younger Sister
, -
, 7
, পুতেক
, /putɛk/
, Son
, -
, 8
, জীয়ৰী
, /ziːɔɾi/
, Daughter
, -
, 9
, ককা
, /kɔka/
, Paternal Grandfather
, -
, 10
, আইতা
, /aita/
, Paternal Grandmother
, -
, 11
, কাকা
, /kaka/
, Uncle (Father’s younger brother)
, -
, 12
, খুৰা
, /kʰuɾa/
, Uncle (Father’s elder brother)
, -
, 13
, খুৰী
, /kʰuɾi/
, Aunt (Father’s brother’s wife)
, -
, 14
, পেহা
, /peɦa/
, Uncle (Father’s younger sister’s husband)
, -
, 15
, পেহী
, /pɛ.ɦi/
, Aunt (Father’s younger sister)
, -
, 16
, কাকা
, /kɔka/
, Maternal Grandfather
, -
, 17
, আইতা
, /aita/
, Maternal Grandmother
, -
, 18
, মামা
, /mɑː.mɑː/
, Uncle (Mother’s brother)
, -
, 19
, মামী
, /ma.mi/
, Aunt (Mother’s brother’s wife)
, -
, 20
, মহা
, /mɔ.ɦaˈ/
, Uncle (Mother’s younger sister’s husband)
, -
, 21
, মাহী
, /ma.ɦi/
, Aunt (Mother’s younger sister)
, -
, 22
, শহুৰ
, /xoɦʊɾ/
, Father-in-law
, -
, 23
, শাহু
, /xa.ɦu/
, Mother-in-law
, -
, 24
, দেওৰ
, /d̪eː.ɔɾ/
, Brother-in-law (Husband’s younger brother)
, -
, 25
, ননদ
, / nɔnɔd /
, Sister-in-law (Husband’s younger sister)
, -
, 26
, খুলশালি
, /K^hulxali/
, Brother-in-law (Wife’s younger brother)
, -
, 27
, খুলশালি
, /K^hulxali/
, Sister-in-law (Wife’s younger sister)

Dialects

Regional dialects

The language has quite a few regional variations. Banikanta Kakati identified two broad dialects which he named (1) Eastern and (2) Western dialects,"Assamese may be divided dialectically into Eastern and Western Assamese" of which the eastern dialect is homogeneous, and prevalent to the east of Guwahati, and the western dialect is heterogeneous. However, recent linguistic studies have identified four dialect groups and one dialect isolate listed below from east to west to south:
* Eastern group in and around the undivided Sivasagar district (Golaghat, Jorhat, Majuli, Charaideo and Sivasagar) and the former undivided Lakhimpur district (Dibrugarh, Tinsukia, Lakhimpur and Dhemaji. Standard Assamese is based on the Eastern group.
* Central group spoken in Nagaon, Sonitpur, Morigaon districts and adjoining areas
* Kamrupi group in the Kamrup region: ( Barpetia, Nalbariya, Palasbaria)
* Goalpariya group in the Goalpara region: (Ghulliya, Jharuwa, Caruwa)
* Cachar dialect (Dehan) in Cachar district of Barak valley

Samples

Collected from the book, ''Assamese – Its formation and development''. The text below is from the Parable of the Prodigal Son. The translations are of different versions of the English translations:

Non-regional dialects

Assamese does not have many caste- or occupation-based dialects. In the nineteenth century, the Eastern dialect became the standard dialect because it witnessed more literary activity and it was more uniform from east of Guwahati to Sadiya, whereas the western dialects were more heterogeneous. Since the nineteenth century, the center of literary activity (as well as of politics and commerce) has shifted to Guwahati; as a result, the standard dialect has evolved considerably away from the largely rural Eastern dialects and has become more urban and acquired western dialectal elements. Most literary activity takes place in this dialect, and is often called the ''likhito-bhaxa'', though regional dialects are often used in novels and other creative works.

In addition to the regional variants, sub-regional, community-based dialects are also prevalent, namely:
* Standard dialect influenced by surrounding centers.
* ''Bhakatiya'' dialect highly polite, a sattra-based dialect with a different set of nominals, pronominals, and verbal forms, as well as a preference for euphemism; indirect and passive expressions. Some of these features are used in the standard dialect on very formal occasions.
* The fisherman community has a dialect that is used in the central and eastern region.
* The astrologer community of Darrang district has a dialect called ''thar'' that is coded and secretive. The ''ratikhowa'' and ''bhitarpanthiya'' secretive cult-based Vaisnava groups too have their own dialects.
* The Muslim community have their own dialectal preference, with their own kinship, custom, and religious terms, with those in east Assam having distinct phonetic features.
* The urban adolescent and youth communities (for example, Guwahati) have exotic, hybrid and local slangs.
* Ethnic speech communities that use Assamese as a second language, often use dialects that are influenced heavily by the pronunciation, intonation, stress, vocabulary and syntax of their respective first languages (''Mising Eastern Assamese'', ''Bodo Central Kamrupi'', ''Rabha Eastern Goalpariya'' etc.). Two independent pidgins/creoles, associated with the Assamese language, are Nagamese (used by Naga groups) and Nefamese (used in Arunachal Pradesh).

Literature

There is a growing and strong body of literature in this language.
The first characteristics of this language are seen in the Charyapadas composed in between the eighth and twelfth centuries. The first examples emerged in writings of court poets in the fourteenth century, the finest example of which is Madhav Kandali's Saptakanda Ramayana. The popular ballad in the form of Ojapali is also regarded as well-crafted. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw a flourishing of Vaishnavite literature, leading up to the emergence of modern forms of literature in the late nineteenth century.

See also

* Assamese Manipuri language
* Indo-Aryan languages
* Languages of India
* Languages with official status in India
* List of Indian languages by total speakers
* List of languages by number of native speakers
* Personalities from Western Assam
* Assamese Language Movement
* Assamese people

Notes

References

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External links

Assamese language
at ''Encyclopædia Britannica''
Axamiyaa Bhaaxaar Moulik Bisar by Mr Devananda Bharali (PDF)Candrakānta abhidhāna : Asamiyi sabdara butpatti aru udaharanere Asamiya-Ingraji dui bhashara artha thaka abhidhana.
second ed. Guwahati : Guwahati Bisbabidyalaya, 1962.
A Dictionary in Assamese and English
(1867) First Assamese dictionary by Miles Bronson from (books.google.com)
Assamese proverbs, published 1896

{{DEFAULTSORT:Assamese Language

Classical Language in India
Eastern Indo-Aryan languages
Official languages of India
Languages of Bangladesh
Official languages of Assam
Subject–object–verb languages
Indo-Aryan languages