''Arthrobacter'' (from the Greek, "jointed small stick”) is a

genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...

bacteria Bacteria (; : bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one Cell (biology), biological cell. They constitute a large domain (biology), domain of Prokaryote, prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micr ...

that is commonly found in soil. All

species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...

in this genus are

Gram-positive In bacteriology, gram-positive bacteria are bacteria that give a positive result in the Gram stain test, which is traditionally used to quickly classify bacteria into two broad categories according to their type of cell wall. The Gram stain is ...

obligate aerobe An obligate aerobe is an organism that requires oxygen to grow. Through cellular respiration, these organisms use oxygen to metabolise substances, like sugars or fats, to obtain energy. In this type of respiration, oxygen serves as the terminal ...

s that are rods during

exponential growth Exponential growth occurs when a quantity grows as an exponential function of time. The quantity grows at a rate directly proportional to its present size. For example, when it is 3 times as big as it is now, it will be growing 3 times as fast ...

and

cocci Bacterial cellular morphologies are the shapes that are characteristic of various types of bacteria and often key to their identification. Their direct examination under a light microscope enables the classification of these bacteria (and archaea ...

in their stationary phase. ''Arthrobacter'' have a distinctive method of cell division called "snapping division" or reversion in which the outer bacterial

cell wall A cell wall is a structural layer that surrounds some Cell type, cell types, found immediately outside the cell membrane. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid. Primarily, it provides the cell with structural support, shape, protection, ...

ruptures at a joint.

Description

''Arthrobacter'' can be grown on mineral salts pyridone broth, where colonies have a greenish metallic center on incubated at . Under the microscope, ''Arthrobacter'' appear as rods when rapidly dividing, and cocci when in stationary phase. Dividing cells may also appear as chevrons ("V" shapes). Other notable characteristics are that it can use

pyridone Pyridone may refer to several organic compounds with the formula : *2-Pyridone *3-hydroxypyridine *4-Pyridone These can adopt three tautomers, a oxo form, a zwitterion form, and a enol form. Whereas 2-pyridone (α) and 4-pyridone (γ) predominantl ...

as its sole

carbon Carbon () is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol C and atomic number 6. It is nonmetallic and tetravalence, tetravalent—meaning that its atoms are able to form up to four covalent bonds due to its valence shell exhibiting 4 ...

source, and that its cocci are resistant to

desiccation Desiccation is the state of extreme dryness, or the process of extreme drying. A desiccant is a hygroscopic (attracts and holds water) substance that induces or sustains such a state in its local vicinity in a moderately sealed container. The ...

and starvation.

Use in industry

''Arthrobacter'', like other bacterial genera including ''

Brevibacterium ''Brevibacterium'' is a genus of bacteria of the order Micrococcales. They are Gram-positive soil Soil, also commonly referred to as earth, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, water, and organisms that together support the ...

'', ''

Microbacterium ''Microbacterium'' is a genus of bacteria in the family Microbacteriaceae. Microbacteria are common contaminants of laboratory reagents, which can lead to their being misrepresented in microbiome A microbiome () is the community of microo ...

'', and ''

Corynebacterium ''Corynebacterium'' () is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria and most are aerobic. They are bacilli (rod-shaped), and in some phases of life they are, more specifically, club-shaped, which inspired the genus name ('' coryneform'' means "club-s ...

'' are used for industrial production of L-glutamate. In industrial applications, ''Arthrobacter'' is often grown with low-cost sugar sources such as cane or beet molasses, starch hydrolysates from corn or cassava tubers, or tapioca. Along with sugar, ammonia and ammonium salts are added as a nitrogen source. The vitamins, minerals, and some other types of nutrients can be provided by adding corn steep liquour.

Other uses

Various ''Arthrobacter'' species have been investigated for other commercial applications. '' A. crystallopoietes'' and '' A. chlorophenolicus'' have been shown to reduce

hexavalent chromium Hexavalent chromium (chromium(VI), Cr(VI), chromium 6) is any chemical compound that contains the element chromium in the +6 oxidation state (thus hexavalent). It has been identified as carcinogenic, which is of concern since approximately of ...

and

4-chlorophenol 4-Chlorophenol is an organic compound with the formula C6H4ClOH. It is one of three monochlorophenol isomers. It is a colorless or white solid that melts easily and exhibits significant solubility in water. Its pKa is 9.41. Preparation and rea ...

levels in contaminated soil, suggesting they may be useful for

bioremediation Bioremediation broadly refers to any process wherein a biological system (typically bacteria, microalgae, fungi in mycoremediation, and plants in phytoremediation), living or dead, is employed for removing environmental pollutants from air, wate ...

. Similarly, ''Arthrobacter'' sp. strain R1 (American Type Culture Collection strain number 49987) has been shown to grow on a variety of aromatic compounds, including homocyclic compounds, such as hydroxybenzoates, as well as N-heterocycles, including

pyridine Pyridine is a basic (chemistry), basic heterocyclic compound, heterocyclic organic compound with the chemical formula . It is structurally related to benzene, with one methine group replaced by a nitrogen atom . It is a highly flammable, weak ...

and

picoline Picoline refers to any of three isomerism, isomers of methylpyridine (CH3C5H4N). They are all colorless liquids with a characteristic smell similar to that of pyridine. They are miscible with water and most organic solvents. Isomers The CAS reg ...

''Arthrobacter'' sp. H65-7 produces the enzyme

inulase II Inulinase ( and , inulase, endoinulinase, endo-inulinase, exoinulinase, 2,1-β-D-fructan fructanohydrolase) is an enzyme with List of enzymes, systematic name 1-β-D-fructan fructanohydrolase. It catalysis, catalyses the reaction: : Endohydroly ...

that converts

inulin Inulins are a group of naturally occurring polysaccharides produced by many types of plants, industrially most often extracted from chicory. The inulins belong to a class of dietary fibers known as fructans. Inulin is used by some plants as a ...

into the medically relevant nutrient difructose anhydride. The enzyme Alu obtained from ''

Arthrobacter luteus ''Arthrobacter luteus'' (ALU) is a species of gram-positive bacteria in the genus ''Arthrobacter''. ''A. luteus'' is facultatively anaerobic, Pleomorphism (microbiology), pleomorphic, branching, Motility, non-motile, Spore, non-sporulating, non- ...

'' is able to cleave Alu sequences which is frequently repeated in human DNA.

Species

''Arthrobacter'' comprises the following species: * '' A. agilis'' (Ali-Cohen 1889) Koch et al. 1995 * '' A. alkaliphilus'' Ding et al. 2009 * '' A. alpinus'' Zhang et al. 2010 * '' A. bambusae'' Park et al. 2014 * '' A. bussei'' Flegler et al. 2020 * "'' A. casei''" Wenning et al. 2006 * '' A. castelli'' Heyrman et al. 2005 * '' A. celericrescens'' Yan et al. 2019 * '' A. cheniae'' Yang et al. 2021 * '' A. citreus'' Sacks 1954 (Approved Lists 1980) * "'' A. crusticola''" Liu et al. 2020 * "'' A. crygenae''" Vasil'eva et al. 1998 * '' A. cryoconiti'' Margesin et al. 2012 * '' A. crystallopoietes'' Ensign and Rittenberg 1963 (Approved Lists 1980) * '' A. cupressi'' Zhang et al. 2012 * '' A. deserti'' Hu et al. 2016 * "'' A. dextranlyticum''" Hatada et al. 2004 * "'' A. dokdonellae''" Koh et al. 2019 * '' A. echini'' Lee et al. 2016 * '' A. flavus'' Reddy et al. 2000 * '' A. frigidicola'' Yang et al. 2021 * '' A. gandavensis'' Storms et al. 2003 * '' A. ginkgonis'' Cheng et al. 2017 * "'' A. ginsengisoli''" Siddiqi et al. 2014 * '' A. glacialis'' Liu et al. 2019 * '' A. globiformis'' corrig. (Conn 1928) Conn and Dimmick 1947 (Approved Lists 1980) * '' A. gyeryongensis'' Hoang et al. 2014 * '' A. halodurans'' Chen et al. 2012 * '' A. humicola'' Kageyama et al. 2008 * "'' A. ipsi''" Gonzalez-Dominici et al. 2021 * '' A. jiangjiafuii'' Zhang et al. 2022 * "'' A. keyseri''" Eaton 2001 * '' A. koreensis'' Lee et al. 2003 * '' A. liuii'' Yu et al. 2015 * '' A. livingstonensis'' Ganzert et al. 2011 * '' A. luteolus'' Wauters et al. 2000 * "'' A. luteus''" Kaneko et al. 1969 * '' A. methylotrophus'' Borodina et al. 2002 * '' A. mobilis'' Ye et al. 2020 * '' A. monumenti'' Heyrman et al. 2005 * '' A. nanjingensis'' uang et al. 2015 * "'' A. nitrophenolicus''" Arora and Jain 2013 * ''

A. oryzae ''Aspergillus oryzae'', also known as , is a mold used in East Asia to saccharify rice, sweet potato, and barley in the making of alcoholic beverages such as ''sake'' and ''shōchū'', and also to ferment soybeans for making soy sauce and ''miso ...

'' Kageyama et al. 2008 * '' A. paludis'' Zhang et al. 2018 * "'' A. paraffineus''" Duvnjak et al. 1982 * '' A. parietis'' Heyrman et al. 2005 * '' A. pascens'' Lochhead and Burton 1953 (Approved Lists 1980) * "'' A. photogonimos''" Phinney and Hoober 1992 * '' A. pigmenti'' Heyrman et al. 2005 * '' A. pityocampae'' İnce et al. 2014 * '' A. pokkalii'' Krishnan et al. 2017 * '' A. psychrochitiniphilus'' Wang et al. 2009 * '' A. psychrolactophilus'' Loveland-Curtze et al. 2000 * '' A. ramosus'' Jensen 1960 (Approved Lists 1980) * '' A. rhombi'' Osorio et al. 1999 * '' A. roseus'' Reddy et al. 2002 * '' A. ruber'' Liu et al. 2018 * '' A. russicus'' Li et al. 2004 * "'' A. saudimassiliensis''" Papadioti et al. 2017 * "'' A. sedimenti''" Lin et al. 2020 * "'' A. senegalensis''" Ndiaye et al. 2019 * '' A. silvisoli'' Yan et al. 2018 * '' A. silviterrae'' Lee et al. 2017 * '' A. stackebrandtii'' Tvrzová et al. 2005 * '' A. subterraneus'' Chang et al. 2008 * "'' A. sulfonylureivorans''" Han et al. 2021 * '' A. sunyaminii'' Zhang et al. 2022 * '' A. tecti'' Heyrman et al. 2005 * "'' A. terrae''" Jiang et al. 2022 * '' A. terricola'' Trinh and Kim 2021 * '' A. tumbae'' Heyrman et al. 2005 * '' A. ulcerisalmonis'' Kämpfer et al. 2020 * "'' A. wenxiniae''" Sun et al. 2022 * '' A. woluwensis'' Funke et al. 1997 * '' A. yangruifuii'' Ge et al. 2020 * '' A. zhaoguopingii'' Ge et al. 2020

References

External links

Arthrobacter Genome Projects
(fro
Genomes OnLine Database

Comparative Analysis of Arthrobacter Genomes
(at DOE's IMG system) {{Authority control Micrococcaceae Psychrophiles Bacteria genera