Antarctica Cooling Controversy
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Despite its isolation,
Antarctica Antarctica () is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean (also known as the Antarctic Ocean), it contains the geographic South Pole. ...
has experienced warming and ice loss in recent decades, driven by
greenhouse gas emissions Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide (), from burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, oil, and natural gas, is the main cause of climate chan ...
.
West Antarctica West Antarctica, or Lesser Antarctica, one of the two major regions of Antarctica, is the part of that continent that lies within the Western Hemisphere, and includes the Antarctic Peninsula. It is separated from East Antarctica by the Transan ...
warmed by over 0.1 °C per decade from the 1950s to the 2000s, and the exposed
Antarctic Peninsula The Antarctic Peninsula, known as O'Higgins Land in Chile and Tierra de San Martin in Argentina, and originally as Graham Land in the United Kingdom and the Palmer Peninsula in the United States, is the northernmost part of mainland Antarctica. ...
has warmed by since the mid-20th century. The colder, stabler
East Antarctica East Antarctica, also called Greater Antarctica, constitutes the majority (two-thirds) of the Antarctic continent, lying primarily in the Eastern Hemisphere south of the Indian Ocean, and separated from West Antarctica by the Transantarctic ...
did not show any warming until the 2000s. Around Antarctica, the
Southern Ocean The Southern Ocean, also known as the Antarctic Ocean, comprises the southernmost waters of the world ocean, generally taken to be south of 60th parallel south, 60° S latitude and encircling Antarctica. With a size of , it is the seco ...
has absorbed more oceanic heat than any other ocean, and has seen strong warming at depths below . Around the West Antarctic, the ocean has warmed by since 1955. The warming of the Southern Ocean around Antarctica has caused the weakening or collapse of
ice shelves An ice shelf is a large platform of glacial ice floating on the ocean, fed by one or multiple tributary glaciers. Ice shelves form along coastlines where the ice thickness is insufficient to Displacement (fluid), displace the more dense surround ...
, which float just offshore of
glacier A glacier (; or ) is a persistent body of dense ice, a form of rock, that is constantly moving downhill under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. It acquires ...
s and stabilize them. Many coastal glaciers have been losing mass and retreating, causing net ice loss across Antarctica, although the
East Antarctic ice sheet The East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) lies between 45th meridian west, 45° west and 168th meridian east, 168° east longitudinally. It was first formed around 34 million years ago, and it is the largest ice sheet on the entire planet, with far gre ...
continues to gain ice inland. By 2100, net ice loss from Antarctica is expected to add about to global
sea-level rise The sea level has been rising from the end of the last ice age, which was around 20,000 years ago. Between 1901 and 2018, the average sea level rose by , with an increase of per year since the 1970s. This was faster than the sea level had e ...
.
Marine ice sheet instability In glaciology, an ice sheet, also known as a continental glacier, is a mass of glacial ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than . The only current ice sheets are the Antarctic ice sheet and the Greenland ice sheet. Ice sheets are ...
may cause West Antarctica to contribute tens of centimeters more if it is triggered before 2100. With higher warming, instability would be much more likely, and could double global, 21st-century sea-level rise. The fresh
meltwater Meltwater (or melt water) is water released by the melting of snow or ice, including glaciers, glacial ice, tabular icebergs and ice shelf, ice shelves over oceans. Meltwater is often found during early spring (season), spring when snow packs a ...
from the ice dilutes the saline
Antarctic bottom water The Antarctic bottom water (AABW) is a type of water mass in the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica with temperatures ranging from −0.8 to 2 °C (35 °F) and absolute salinities from 34.6 to 35.0 g/kg. As the densest water mass of ...
, weakening the lower cell of the
Southern Ocean overturning circulation Southern Ocean overturning circulation (sometimes referred to as the Southern Meridional overturning circulation (SMOC) or Antarctic overturning circulation) is the southern half of a global thermohaline circulation, which connects different wate ...
(SOOC). According to some research, a full collapse of the SOOC may occur at between and of global warming, although the full effects are expected to occur over multiple centuries; these include less precipitation in the Southern Hemisphere but more in the
Northern Hemisphere The Northern Hemisphere is the half of Earth that is north of the equator. For other planets in the Solar System, north is defined by humans as being in the same celestial sphere, celestial hemisphere relative to the invariable plane of the Solar ...
, an eventual decline of fisheries in the Southern Ocean and a potential collapse of certain
marine ecosystem Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems and exist in Saline water, waters that have a high salt content. These systems contrast with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover more than 7 ...
s. While many Antarctic species remain undiscovered, there are documented increases in
Antarctic flora Antarctic flora are a distinct community of vascular plants which evolved millions of years ago on the supercontinent of Gondwana. In 2025, species of Antarctica flora reside on several now separated areas of the Southern Hemisphere, including ...
, and large
fauna Fauna (: faunae or faunas) is all of the animal life present in a particular region or time. The corresponding terms for plants and fungi are ''flora'' and '' funga'', respectively. Flora, fauna, funga and other forms of life are collectively ...
such as
penguin Penguins are a group of aquatic flightless birds from the family Spheniscidae () of the order Sphenisciformes (). They live almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere. Only one species, the Galápagos penguin, is equatorial, with a sm ...
s are already having difficulty retaining suitable habitat. On ice-free land,
permafrost Permafrost () is soil or underwater sediment which continuously remains below for two years or more; the oldest permafrost has been continuously frozen for around 700,000 years. Whilst the shallowest permafrost has a vertical extent of below ...
thaws release
greenhouse gas Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the gases in the atmosphere that raise the surface temperature of planets such as the Earth. Unlike other gases, greenhouse gases absorb the radiations that a planet emits, resulting in the greenhouse effect. T ...
es and formerly frozen pollution. The West Antarctic ice sheet is likely to completely melt unless temperatures are reduced by below 2020 levels. The loss of this ice sheet would take between 500 and 13,000 years. A sea-level rise of would occur if the ice sheet collapses, leaving ice caps on the mountains, and if those ice caps also melt. The far-stabler East Antarctic ice sheet may only cause a sea-level rise of  – from the current level of warming, a small fraction of the contained in the full ice sheet. With global warming of around , vulnerable areas like
Wilkes Basin The Wilkes Basin is a large subglacial basin situated generally southward of George V Coast and westward of Prince Albert Mountains in East Antarctica. The feature is approximately 1400 km long and 400 km wide. The Wilkes Basin is consi ...
and
Aurora Basin Aurora Subglacial Basin is a large subglacial basin of Wilkes Land to the west of Dome Charlie and trending northwest toward the coast in the vicinity of Shackleton Ice Shelf. The basin was delineated by the SPRI-NSF- TUD airborne radio echo sou ...
may collapse over around 2,000 years, potentially adding up to to sea levels.


Temperature and weather changes

Antarctica is the coldest, driest continent on Earth, and has the highest average elevation. Antarctica's dryness means the air contains little water vapor and conducts heat poorly. The
Southern Ocean The Southern Ocean, also known as the Antarctic Ocean, comprises the southernmost waters of the world ocean, generally taken to be south of 60th parallel south, 60° S latitude and encircling Antarctica. With a size of , it is the seco ...
surrounding the continent is far more effective at absorbing heat than any other ocean. The presence of extensive, year-round
sea ice Sea ice arises as seawater freezes. Because ice is less density, dense than water, it floats on the ocean's surface (as does fresh water ice). Sea ice covers about 7% of the Earth's surface and about 12% of the world's oceans. Much of the world' ...
, which has a high
albedo Albedo ( ; ) is the fraction of sunlight that is Diffuse reflection, diffusely reflected by a body. It is measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects ...
(reflectivity), adds to the albedo of the ice sheets' own bright, white surface. Antarctica's coldness means it is the only place on Earth where an atmospheric
temperature inversion In meteorology, an inversion (or temperature inversion) is a phenomenon in which a layer of warmer air overlies cooler air. Normally, air temperature gradually decreases as altitude increases, but this relationship is reversed in an inver ...
occurs every winter; elsewhere on Earth, the atmosphere is at its warmest near the surface and becomes cooler as elevation increases. During the Antarctic winter, the surface of central Antarctica becomes cooler than middle layers of the atmosphere; this means
greenhouse gas Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the gases in the atmosphere that raise the surface temperature of planets such as the Earth. Unlike other gases, greenhouse gases absorb the radiations that a planet emits, resulting in the greenhouse effect. T ...
es trap heat in the middle atmosphere, and reduce its flow toward the surface and toward space, rather than preventing the flow of heat from the lower atmosphere to the upper layers. This effect lasts until the end of the Antarctic winter. Early
climate model Numerical climate models (or climate system models) are mathematical models that can simulate the interactions of important drivers of climate. These drivers are the atmosphere, oceans, land surface and ice. Scientists use climate models to st ...
s predicted temperature trends over Antarctica would emerge more slowly and be more subtle than those elsewhere. There were fewer than twenty permanent
weather station A weather station is a facility, either on land or sea, with instruments and equipment for measuring atmosphere of Earth, atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasting, weather forecasts and to study the weather and clima ...
s across the continent and only two in the continent's interior.
Automatic weather station An automatic weather station (AWS) is an automated version of the traditional weather station, either to save human labor or to enable measurements from remote areas. An AWS will typically consist of a weather-proof enclosure containing the data ...
s were deployed relatively late, and their observational record was brief for much of the 20th century
satellite temperature measurements Satellite temperature measurements are inferences of the temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures obtained from radiometric measurements by satellites. These measurements can be used to lo ...
began in 1981 and are typically limited to cloud-free conditions. Thus, datasets representing the entire continent only began to appear by the very end of the 20th century. The exception was the
Antarctic Peninsula The Antarctic Peninsula, known as O'Higgins Land in Chile and Tierra de San Martin in Argentina, and originally as Graham Land in the United Kingdom and the Palmer Peninsula in the United States, is the northernmost part of mainland Antarctica. ...
, where warming was pronounced and well-documented; it was eventually found to have warmed by since the mid 20th century. Based on this limited data, several papers published in the early 2000s said there had been an overall cooling over continental Antarctica outside the Peninsula. PDF available at AMS Online PDF available at Annular Modes Website In particular, a 2002 analysis led by
Peter Doran Peter T. Doran is an American Earth scientist who is Professor of Geology and Geophysics and John Franks Endowed Chair at Louisiana State University. Prior to 2015, he was faculty in Earth and Environmental Sciences at the University of Illinois ...
indicated stronger cooling than warming over Antarctica between 1966 and 2000, and found the
McMurdo Dry Valleys The McMurdo Dry Valleys are a row of largely Antarctic oasis, snow-free valleys in Antarctica, located within Victoria Land west of McMurdo Sound. The Dry Valleys experience extremely low humidity and surrounding mountains prevent the flow of ...
in East Antarctica had experienced cooling of 0.7 °C per decade. The paper noted that its data was limited, and it still found warming over 42% of the continent. Nevertheless, the paper received widespread media coverage, as multiple journalists described these findings as "contradictory" to global warming, which was criticized by scientists at the time. The "controversy" around cooling of Antarctica received further attention in 2004 when
Michael Crichton John Michael Crichton (; October 23, 1942 – November 4, 2008) was an American author, screenwriter and filmmaker. His books have sold over 200 million copies worldwide, and over a dozen have been adapted into films. His literary works heavil ...
wrote the novel ''
State of Fear ''State of Fear'' is a 2004 techno-thriller novel by Michael Crichton, his fourteenth under his own name and twenty-fourth overall, in which eco-terrorism, eco-terrorists plot mass murder to publicize the danger of global warming. Despite being ...
''. The novel featured a fictional conspiracy among climate scientists to fake evidence of global warming, and cited Doran's study as proof that there was no warming in Antarctica outside of the Peninsula. First Edition That novel was mentioned in a 2006
US Senate The United States Senate is a chamber of the bicameral United States Congress; it is the upper house, with the U.S. House of Representatives being the lower house. Together, the Senate and House have the authority under Article One of the ...
hearing in support of
climate change denial Climate change denial (also global warming denial) is a form of science denial characterized by rejecting, refusing to acknowledge, disputing, or fighting the scientific consensus on climate change. Those promoting denial commonly use rhetor ...
, and Peter Doran published a statement in ''
The New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''NYT'') is an American daily newspaper based in New York City. ''The New York Times'' covers domestic, national, and international news, and publishes opinion pieces, investigative reports, and reviews. As one of ...
'' decrying the misinterpretation of his work. The
British Antarctic Survey The British Antarctic Survey (BAS) is the United Kingdom's national polar research institute. It has a dual purpose, to conduct polar science, enabling better understanding of list of global issues, global issues, and to provide an active prese ...
and
NASA The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agencies of the United States government, independent agency of the federal government of the United States, US federal government responsible for the United States ...
also issued statements affirming the strength of climate science after the hearing. NASA image by Robert Simmon, based on data from Joey Comiso, GSFC. By 2009, researchers were able to combine historical weather-station data with satellite measurements to create consistent temperature records going back to 1957 that demonstrated warming of >0.05 °C per decade across the continent, with cooling in East Antarctica offset by the average temperature increase of at least 0.176 ± 0.06 °C per decade in West Antarctica. That paper was widely reported on, and subsequent research confirmed clear warming over West Antarctica in the 20th century, with the only uncertainty being the magnitude. During 2012–2013, estimates based on WAIS Divide
ice core An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet or a high mountain glacier A glacier (; or ) is a persistent body of dense ice, a form of rock, that is constantly moving downhill under its own weight. A glacier ...
s and revised temperature records from
Byrd Station The Byrd Station is a former research station established by the United States during the International Geophysical Year by U.S. Navy Seabees during Operation Deep Freeze II in West Antarctica. It was a year-round base until 1972, and then se ...
suggested a much-larger West-Antarctica warming of since 1958, or around per decade, although some scientists continued to emphasize uncertainty. In 2022, a study narrowed the warming of the Central area of the
West Antarctic Ice Sheet The West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) is the segment of the Antarctic ice sheet, continental ice sheet that covers West Antarctica, the portion of Antarctica on the side of the Transantarctic Mountains that lies in the Western Hemisphere. It is cla ...
between 1959 and 2000 to per decade, and conclusively attributed it to increases in greenhouse gas concentrations caused by human activity. Likewise, the strong cooling at McMurdo Dry Valleys was confirmed to be a local trend. The Antarctica-wide warming trend continued after 2000, and in February 2020, the continent recorded its highest-ever temperature of 18.3 °C, exceeding the previous record of 17.5 °C in March 2015. The East Antarctica interior also demonstrated clear warming between 2000 and 2020. In particular, the
South Pole The South Pole, also known as the Geographic South Pole or Terrestrial South Pole, is the point in the Southern Hemisphere where the Earth's rotation, Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It is called the True South Pole to distinguish ...
warmed by 0.61 ± 0.34 °C per decade between 1990 and 2020, which is three times the global average. On the other hand, changes in atmospheric circulation patterns like the
Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation The Interdecadal Pacific oscillation (IPO) is an oceanographic/meteorological phenomenon similar to the Pacific decadal oscillation The Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO) is a robust, recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability c ...
(IPO) and the
Southern Annular Mode The Antarctic oscillation (AAO, to distinguish it from the Arctic oscillation or AO), also known as the Southern Annular Mode (SAM), is a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the southern hemisphere that is defined as a belt of stron ...
(SAM) slowed or partially reversed the warming of West Antarctica, with the Antarctic Peninsula experiencing cooling from 2002. While a variability in those patterns is natural, past
ozone depletion Ozone depletion consists of two related events observed since the late 1970s: a lowered total amount of ozone in Earth, Earth's upper atmosphere, and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone (the ozone layer) around Earth's polar ...
had also led the SAM to be stronger than it had been in the past 600 years of observations. Starting around 2002, studies predicted a reversal in the SAM once the ozone layer began to recover following the
Montreal Protocol The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. It was agreed on 16 ...
, and these changes are consistent with their predictions. Under the most intense
climate change scenario A climate change scenario is a hypothetical future based on a "set of key driving forces".IPCC, 2022Annex I: Glossary an Diemen, R., J.B.R. Matthews, V. Möller, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C.  Méndez, A. Reisinger, S. Semenov (eds) In ...
known as RCP8.5, models predict Antarctic surface temperatures to rise by by 2070 and by on average by 2100; this will be accompanied by a 30% increase in precipitation and a 30% decrease in sea ice by 2100. The Southern Ocean waters "south of 50° S latitude would also warm by about by 2070. RCPs were developed in the late 2000s, and early 2020s research considers RCP8.5 much less likely than the more-moderate scenarios like RCP 4.5, which lie in between the worst-case scenario and the
Paris Agreement The Paris Agreement (also called the Paris Accords or Paris Climate Accords) is an international treaty on climate change that was signed in 2016. The treaty covers climate change mitigation, adaptation, and finance. The Paris Agreement was ...
goals. If a low-emission scenario mostly consistent with the Paris Agreement goals is followed, then Antarctica would experience surface and ocean warming of less than by 2070, while less than 15% of sea ice would be lost and precipitation would increase by less than 10%.


Effects on ocean currents

Between 1971 and 2018, over 90% of
thermal energy The term "thermal energy" is often used ambiguously in physics and engineering. It can denote several different physical concepts, including: * Internal energy: The energy contained within a body of matter or radiation, excluding the potential en ...
from global heating entered the oceans. Text was copied from this source, which is available under
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
/ref> The Southern Ocean absorbs the most heat; after 2005, it accounted for between 67% and 98% of all heat entering the oceans. The temperature in the ocean's upper layer in West Antarctica has warmed by since 1955, and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is also warming faster than the average. It is also a highly important
carbon sink A carbon sink is a natural or artificial carbon sequestration process that "removes a  greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere". These sinks form an important part of the natural carbon cycle. An overar ...
. These properties are connected to the
Southern Ocean overturning circulation Southern Ocean overturning circulation (sometimes referred to as the Southern Meridional overturning circulation (SMOC) or Antarctic overturning circulation) is the southern half of a global thermohaline circulation, which connects different wate ...
(SOOC), one half of the global
thermohaline circulation Thermohaline circulation (THC) is a part of the large-scale Ocean current, ocean circulation driven by global density gradients formed by surface heat and freshwater fluxes. The name ''thermohaline'' is derived from ''wikt:thermo-, thermo-'', r ...
. As such, estimates on when global warming will reach  – inevitable in all scenarios where greenhouse gas emissions have not been significantly lowered – depend on the strength of the circulation more than any factor other than the overall emissions. The overturning circulation has two parts; the smaller upper cell, which is most-strongly affected by winds and precipitation, and the larger lower cell that is defined by the temperature and salinity of
Antarctic bottom water The Antarctic bottom water (AABW) is a type of water mass in the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica with temperatures ranging from −0.8 to 2 °C (35 °F) and absolute salinities from 34.6 to 35.0 g/kg. As the densest water mass of ...
. Since the 1970s, the upper cell has strengthened by 50–60% while the lower cell has weakened by 10–20%.The natural cycle of the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO) contributed to some of this change, but climate change has also played a clear role by shifting the
Southern Annular Mode The Antarctic oscillation (AAO, to distinguish it from the Arctic oscillation or AO), also known as the Southern Annular Mode (SAM), is a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the southern hemisphere that is defined as a belt of stron ...
(SAM) pattern, which alters winds and precipitation. Fresh
meltwater Meltwater (or melt water) is water released by the melting of snow or ice, including glaciers, glacial ice, tabular icebergs and ice shelf, ice shelves over oceans. Meltwater is often found during early spring (season), spring when snow packs a ...
from the erosion of the West Antarctic ice sheet dilutes the more-saline Antarctic bottom water, which flows at a rate of 1100–1500 billion tons (GT) per year. During the 2010s, a temporary reduction in ice-shelf melting in West Antarctica allowed for the partial recovery of Antarctic bottom water and the lower cell of the circulation. Greater melting and further decline of the circulation is expected in the future. As bottom water weakens while the flow of warmer, fresher waters strengthens near the surface, the surface waters become more buoyant, and less likely to sink and mix with the lower layers, increasing
ocean stratification Ocean stratification is the natural separation of an ocean's water into horizontal layers by Density of water, density. This is generally stable stratification, because warm water floats on top of cold water, and heating is mostly from the sun, whi ...
. One study says the strength of the circulation would halve by 2050 under the worst climate-change scenario, with greater losses occurring afterwards.
Paleoclimate Paleoclimatology ( British spelling, palaeoclimatology) is the scientific study of climates predating the invention of meteorological instruments, when no direct measurement data were available. As instrumental records only span a tiny part of ...
evidence shows the entire circulation has significantly weakened or completely collapsed in the past; preliminary research says such a collapse may become likely once global warming reaches between and , but this estimate is much-less certain than for the majority of
tipping points in the climate system In Climatology, climate science, a tipping point is a critical threshold that, when crossed, leads to large, accelerating and often irreversible changes in the climate system. If tipping points are crossed, they are likely to have severe impac ...
. Such a collapse would be prolonged; one estimate places it sometime before 2300 rather than in this century. As with the better-studied
Atlantic meridional overturning circulation The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is the main ocean current system in the Atlantic Ocean.IPCC, 2021Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C. Méndez, S. Sem ...
(AMOC), a major slowing or collapse of the SOOC would have substantial regional and global effects. Some likely effects include a decline in precipitation in Southern Hemisphere countries like Australia, a corresponding increase in precipitation in the Northern Hemisphere, and an eventual decline of fisheries in the Southern Ocean, which could lead to a potential collapse of some
marine ecosystem Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems and exist in Saline water, waters that have a high salt content. These systems contrast with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover more than 7 ...
s. These effects are expected to occur over centuries, but there has been limited research to date and few specifics are currently known.


Effects on the cryosphere


Observed changes in ice mass

Contrasting temperature trends across parts of Antarctica mean that some locations, particularly at the coasts, lose mass while locations further inland continue to gain mass. These contrasting trends and the remoteness of the region make estimating an average trend difficult. In 2018, a systematic review of all previous studies and data by the Ice Sheet Mass Balance Inter-comparison Exercise (IMBIE) estimated an increase in the
West Antarctic ice sheet The West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) is the segment of the Antarctic ice sheet, continental ice sheet that covers West Antarctica, the portion of Antarctica on the side of the Transantarctic Mountains that lies in the Western Hemisphere. It is cla ...
from 53 ± 29 Gt (gigatonnes) in 1992 to 159 ± 26 Gt in the final five years of the study. On the Antarctic Peninsula, the study estimated a loss of 20 ± 15 Gt per year with an increase in loss of roughly 15 Gt per year after 2000, a significant quantity of which was the loss of ice shelves. The review's overall estimate was that Antarctica lost 2,720 ± 1,390 gigatons of ice from 1992 to 2017, averaging 109 ± 56 Gt per year. This would amount to of sea-level rise. A 2021 analysis of data from four research satellite systems –
Envisat Envisat ("Environmental Satellite") is a large Earth-observing satellite which has been inactive since 2012. It is still in orbit and considered space debris. Operated by the European Space Agency (ESA), it was the world's largest civilian Ear ...
,
European Remote-Sensing Satellite European Remote Sensing satellite (ERS) was the European Space Agency's first Earth-observing satellite programme using a polar orbit. It consisted of two satellites, ERS-1 and ERS-2, with ERS-1 being launched in 1991. ERS-1 ERS-1 launched ...
,
GRACE and GRACE-FO The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) was a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR). Twin satellites took detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field anomalies from its launch in March 2002 to the end of its ...
, and
ICESat ICESat (Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite) was a NASA satellite mission for measuring ice sheet mass balance, cloud and aerosol heights, as well as land topography and vegetation characteristics. It operated as part of NASA's Earth Obser ...
 – indicated an annual mass loss of about 12 Gt from 2012 to 2016 due to much-greater ice gain in East Antarctica than earlier estimated, which offset most of the losses from West Antarctica. The
East Antarctic ice sheet The East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) lies between 45th meridian west, 45° west and 168th meridian east, 168° east longitudinally. It was first formed around 34 million years ago, and it is the largest ice sheet on the entire planet, with far gre ...
can still gain mass despite warming because
effects of climate change on the water cycle The effects of climate change on the water cycle are profound and have been described as an ''intensification'' or a ''strengthening'' of the water cycle (also called hydrologic cycle).Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, ...
increase precipitation over its surface, which then freezes and helps to accrete more ice. According to a study in 2023, the total area of Antarctic ice shelves increased by approximately 5,305 km² (about 0.4%) between 2009 and 2019, as the growth of the largest ice shelves in East Antarctica outweighed concurrent losses from ice shelves in West Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula.


Black carbon pollution

Black carbon Black carbon (BC) is the light-absorbing refractory form of Chemical_element, elemental carbon remaining after pyrolysis (e.g., charcoal) or produced by incomplete combustion (e.g., soot). Tihomir Novakov originated the term black carbon in ...
from incomplete fuel combustion is carried long distances by wind. If it reaches Antarctica, black carbon accumulates on snow and ice, reducing the reflectivity and causing it to absorb more energy. This accelerates melting and can create an ice-albedo feedback loop in which meltwater itself absorbs more heat from sunlight. Due to its remoteness, Antarctica has the cleanest snow in the world; some research says the effects of black carbon across West and East Antarctica is currently minimal with an albedo reduction of about 0.5% in one 47-year
ice core An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet or a high mountain glacier A glacier (; or ) is a persistent body of dense ice, a form of rock, that is constantly moving downhill under its own weight. A glacier ...
. The highest concentrations of black carbon are found on the Antarctic Peninsula, where human activity is higher than elsewhere. Black carbon deposits near common tourist sites and research stations increase summer seasonal melting by between about of snow per m2.


21st-century ice loss and sea-level rise

By 2100, net ice loss from Antarctica is expected to add about to global sea-level rise. Other processes may cause West Antarctica to contribute more to sea-level rise. Marine ice-sheet instability is the potential for warm water currents to enter between the
seafloor The seabed (also known as the seafloor, sea floor, ocean floor, and ocean bottom) is the bottom of the ocean. All floors of the ocean are known as seabeds. The structure of the seabed of the global ocean is governed by plate tectonics. Most of ...
and the base of the ice sheet once the sheet is no longer heavy enough to displace such flows. Marine ice-cliff instability may cause ice cliffs taller than to collapse under their own weight once they are no longer buttressed by ice shelves. This process has never been observed and it only occurs in some models. By 2100, these processes may increase sea-level rise caused by Antarctica to under the low-emission scenario and by under the high-emission scenario. Some scientists have given greater estimates but all agree melting in Antarctica would have a greater impact and would be much more likely to occur under higher warming scenarios, where it may double the overall 21st-century sea-level rise to or more. According to one study, if the
Paris Agreement The Paris Agreement (also called the Paris Accords or Paris Climate Accords) is an international treaty on climate change that was signed in 2016. The treaty covers climate change mitigation, adaptation, and finance. The Paris Agreement was ...
is followed and global warming is limited to , the loss of ice in Antarctica will continue at the 2020 rate for the rest of the 21st century, but if a trajectory leading to is followed, Antarctica ice loss will accelerate after 2060 and start adding per year to global sea levels by 2100.


Long-term sea level rise

Sea levels will continue to rise long after 2100 but potentially at very different rates. According to the most-recent reports of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an intergovernmental body of the United Nations. Its job is to "provide governments at all levels with scientific information that they can use to develop climate policies". The World Met ...
(
SROCC The United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC) is a report about the effects of climate change on the world's seas, sea ice, icecaps and glaciers. ...
and the
IPCC Sixth Assessment Report The Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) of the United Nations (UN) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the sixth in a series of reports which assess the available scientific information on climate change. Three Working Groups (WGI, II, ...
), there will be a median rise of and maximum rise of under the low-emission scenario. The highest-emission scenario results in a median rise of with a minimum of and a maximum of . Over longer timescales, the West Antarctic ice sheet, which is much smaller than the East Antarctic ice sheet and is grounded deep below sea level, is considered highly vulnerable. The melting of all of the ice in West Antarctica would increase global sea-level rise to . Mountain ice caps that are not in contact with water are less vulnerable than the majority of the ice sheet, which is located below sea level. The collapse of the West Antarctic ice sheet would cause around of sea-level rise. This kind of collapse is now considered almost inevitable because it appears to have occurred during the
Eemian The Last Interglacial, also known as the Eemian, was the interglacial period which began about 130,000 years ago at the end of the Penultimate Glacial Period and ended about 115,000 years ago at the beginning of the Last Glacial Period. It cor ...
period 125,000 years ago, when temperatures were similar to those in the early 21st century. The
Amundsen Sea The Amundsen Sea is an arm of the Southern Ocean off Marie Byrd Land in western Antarctica. It lies between Cape Flying Fish (the northwestern tip of Thurston Island) to the east and Cape Dart on Siple Island to the west. Cape Flying Fish ...
also appears to be warming at rates that, if continued, make the ice sheet's collapse inevitable. The only way to reverse ice loss from West Antarctica once triggered is to lower the global temperature to below the pre-industrial level, to below the temperature of 2020. Other researchers said a
climate engineering Geoengineering (also known as climate engineering or climate intervention) is the deliberate large-scale interventions in the Earth’s climate system intended to counteract human-caused climate change. The term commonly encompasses two broad cate ...
intervention to stabilize the ice sheet's glaciers may delay its loss by centuries and give the environment more time to adapt. This is an uncertain proposal and would be one of the most-expensive projects ever attempted. Otherwise, the disappearance of the West Antarctic ice sheet would take an estimated 2,000 years. The loss of West Antarctica ice would take at least 500 years and possibly as long as 13,000 years. Once the ice sheet is lost, the
isostatic rebound Post-glacial rebound (also called isostatic rebound or crustal rebound) is the rise of land masses after the removal of the huge weight of ice sheets during the last glacial period, which had caused isostatic depression. Post-glacial rebound ...
of the land previously covered by the ice sheet would result in an additional of sea-level rise over the following 1,000 years. The East Antarctic ice sheet is far more stable than the West Antarctic ice sheet. The loss of the entire East Antarctic ice sheet would require global warming of between and , and a minimum of 10,000 years. Some of its parts, such as
Totten Glacier Totten Glacier is a large glacier draining a major portion of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, through the Budd Coast of Wilkes Land in the Australian Antarctic Territory. The catchment drained by the glacier is estimated at , extending approximate ...
and
Wilkes Basin The Wilkes Basin is a large subglacial basin situated generally southward of George V Coast and westward of Prince Albert Mountains in East Antarctica. The feature is approximately 1400 km long and 400 km wide. The Wilkes Basin is consi ...
, are in vulnerable subglacial basins that lie below sea level. Estimates suggest the irreversible loss of those basins would begin once global warming reaches , although this loss may become irreversible at warming of between and . After global warming reaches the critical threshold for the collapse of these subglacial basins, their loss will likely occur over around 2,000 years, although the loss may be as fast as 500 years or as slow as 10,000 years. The loss of all of this ice would add between and to sea levels, depending on the
ice sheet model In climate modelling, Ice-sheet models use numerical methods to simulate the evolution, dynamics and thermodynamics of ice sheets, such as the Greenland ice sheet, the Antarctic ice sheet or the large ice sheets on the northern hemisphere during ...
used. Isostatic rebound of the newly ice-free land would add between and . Evidence from the
Pleistocene The Pleistocene ( ; referred to colloquially as the ''ice age, Ice Age'') is the geological epoch (geology), epoch that lasted from to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was fin ...
shows partial loss can occur at lower warming levels; Wilkes Basin is estimated to have lost enough ice to add to sea levels between 115,000 and 129,000 years ago during the Eemian, and about between 318,000 and 339,000 years ago during
Marine Isotope Stage 9 Marine Isotope Stage 9 (MIS 9) was an interglacial (warm) Marine Isotope Stage. It was the last period of the Lower Paleolithic. Estimates of its dating vary. It lasted from 337,000 to 300,000 years ago according to Lisiecki and Raymo's 2005 Lorra ...
.


Permafrost thaw

Antarctica has much less
permafrost Permafrost () is soil or underwater sediment which continuously remains below for two years or more; the oldest permafrost has been continuously frozen for around 700,000 years. Whilst the shallowest permafrost has a vertical extent of below ...
than the
Arctic The Arctic (; . ) is the polar regions of Earth, polar region of Earth that surrounds the North Pole, lying within the Arctic Circle. The Arctic region, from the IERS Reference Meridian travelling east, consists of parts of northern Norway ( ...
. Like in the Arctic, warming causes Antarctic permafrost to thaw, causing erosion of the soil and reshaping plant distribution. The permafrost in Antarctica traps various compounds, including
persistent organic pollutant Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. They are toxic and adversely affect human health and the environment around the world. Because ...
s (POPs) like
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon A Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) is any member of a class of organic compounds that is composed of multiple fused aromatic rings. Most are produced by the incomplete combustion of organic matter— by engine exhaust fumes, tobacco, incine ...
s, many of which are known carcinogens or can cause liver damage; and
polychlorinated biphenyl Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are organochlorine compounds with the formula Carbon, C12Hydrogen, H10−''x''Chloride, Cl''x''; they were once widely used in the manufacture of carbonless copy paper, as heat transfer fluids, and as dielectri ...
s such as
hexachlorobenzene Hexachlorobenzene, or perchlorobenzene, is an aryl chloride and a six-substituted chlorobenzene with the molecular formula C6Cl6. It is a fungicide formerly used as a seed treatment, especially on wheat to control the fungal disease bunt. Its u ...
(HCB) and
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, commonly known as DDT, is a colorless, tasteless, and almost odorless crystalline chemical compound, an organochloride. Originally developed as an insecticide, it became infamous for its environmental impacts. ...
, which are associated with decreased reproductive success and immunohematological disorders. Antarctic soils also contain heavy metals, including mercury,
lead Lead () is a chemical element; it has Chemical symbol, symbol Pb (from Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a Heavy metal (elements), heavy metal that is density, denser than most common materials. Lead is Mohs scale, soft and Ductility, malleabl ...
and
cadmium Cadmium is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol Cd and atomic number 48. This soft, silvery-white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group 12 element, group 12, zinc and mercury (element), mercury. Like z ...
, all of which can cause
endocrine disruption Endocrine disruptors, sometimes also referred to as hormonally active agents, endocrine disrupting chemicals, or endocrine disrupting compounds are chemicals that can interfere with endocrine (or hormonal) systems. These disruptions can cause n ...
,
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid (; DNA) is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix. The polymer carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of al ...
damage, immunotoxicity and reproductive toxicity. These compounds are released when contaminated permafrost thaws; this can change the chemistry of surface water.
Bioaccumulation Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a substance faster than it can be lost or eliminated by catabolism and excretion. T ...
and
biomagnification Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification or biological magnification, is the increase in concentration of a substance, e.g a pesticide, in the tissue (biology), tissues of organisms at successively higher levels in a food chain. This inc ...
spread these compounds throughout the food web. Permafrost thaw also results in
greenhouse gas emissions Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide (), from burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, oil, and natural gas, is the main cause of climate chan ...
, though the limited volume of Antarctic permafrost relative to Arctic permafrost means Antarctic permafrost is not considered a significant cause of climate change.


Ecological effects


Marine ecosystems

Nearly all of the species in the Antarctic are marine; by 2015, 8,354 species had been discovered in Antarctica and
taxonomically In biology, taxonomy () is the scientific study of naming, defining ( circumscribing) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxa (singular: taxon), and these groups are given ...
accepted; of these species, only 57 were not marine. Antarctica may have up to 17,000 species; while 90% of the ocean around Antarctica is deeper than , only 30% of the benthic-sample locations were taken at that depth. On the Antarctic
continental shelves A continental shelf is a portion of a continent that is submerged under an area of relatively shallow water, known as a shelf sea. Much of these shelves were exposed by drops in sea level during glacial periods. The shelf surrounding an island ...
, bethnic-zone biomass may increase due to oceanic warming, which is likely to be of most benefit to
seaweed Seaweed, or macroalgae, refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. The term includes some types of ''Rhodophyta'' (red), '' Phaeophyta'' (brown) and ''Chlorophyta'' (green) macroalgae. Seaweed species such as ...
. Around 12% of the native benthic species may be outcompeted and go extinct. These estimates are preliminary; the vulnerabilities of most Antarctic species have yet to be assessed. Unlike in the Arctic, there has been little change in
marine primary production Marine primary production is the chemical synthesis in the ocean of organic compounds from atmospheric or dissolved carbon dioxide. It principally occurs through the process of photosynthesis, which uses light as its source of energy, but it a ...
across the Southern Ocean in the available observations. Estimates say an increase in Southern Ocean primary production could occur after 2100; this increase would block many nutrients from travelling to other oceans, leading to decreased production elsewhere. Some microbial communities appear to have been negatively affected by
ocean acidification Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's ocean. Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05. Carbon dioxide emissions from human activities are the primary cause of ...
and there is a risk future acidification would threaten the eggs of pteropods, a type of
zooplankton Zooplankton are the heterotrophic component of the planktonic community (the " zoo-" prefix comes from ), having to consume other organisms to thrive. Plankton are aquatic organisms that are unable to swim effectively against currents. Consequent ...
.
Antarctic krill Antarctic krill (''Euphausia superba'') is a species of krill found in the Antarctica, Antarctic waters of the Southern Ocean. It is a small, swimming crustacean that lives in large schools, called swarms, sometimes reaching densities of 10,000 ...
are a key species in the Antarctic
food web A food web is the natural interconnection of food chains and a graphical representation of what-eats-what in an ecological community. Position in the food web, or trophic level, is used in ecology to broadly classify organisms as autotrophs or he ...
; they feed on phytoplankton, and are the main food for fish and penguins. Krill numbers appear to have been declining in parts of the Southwest Atlantic Ocean since the 1970s. In the future, Antarctic krill are likely to abandon the fastest-warming areas, such as the
Weddell Sea The Weddell Sea is part of the Southern Ocean and contains the Weddell Gyre. Its land boundaries are defined by the bay formed from the coasts of Coats Land and the Antarctic Peninsula. The easternmost point is Cape Norvegia at Princess Martha C ...
, while icefish may find shelf waters around Antarctic islands unsuitable. Species like
salp A salp (: salps, also known colloquially as “sea grape”) or salpa (: salpae or salpas) is a barrel-shaped, Plankton, planktonic tunicate in the family Salpidae. The salp moves by contracting its gelatinous body in order to pump water thro ...
s are likely to replace krill in the areas which they abandon. The shifts or decreases in krill and
copepod Copepods (; meaning 'oar-feet') are a group of small crustaceans found in nearly every freshwater and saltwater habitat (ecology), habitat. Some species are planktonic (living in the water column), some are benthos, benthic (living on the sedimen ...
numbers are known to prevent the recovery in numbers of
baleen whale Baleen whales (), also known as whalebone whales, are marine mammals of the order (biology), parvorder Mysticeti in the infraorder Cetacea (whales, dolphins and porpoises), which use baleen plates (or "whalebone") in their mouths to sieve plankt ...
following the declines caused by historical
whaling Whaling is the hunting of whales for their products such as meat and blubber, which can be turned into a type of oil that was important in the Industrial Revolution. Whaling was practiced as an organized industry as early as 875 AD. By the 16t ...
. Without a reversal in temperature increases, baleen whales are likely to be forced to adapt their migratory patterns or face local extinction. Many other marine species are expected to move into Antarctic waters as the oceans continue to warm, forcing native species to compete with them. Some research says at of warming, the diversity of Antarctic species would decline by nearly 17% and the suitable climate area would shrink by 50%. Overall
fishery Fishery can mean either the enterprise of raising or harvesting fish and other aquatic life or, more commonly, the site where such enterprise takes place ( a.k.a., fishing grounds). Commercial fisheries include wild fisheries and fish far ...
value of the region may decline under high warming.


Penguins

Penguins are the highest species in the Antarctic food web and are already being substantially affected by climate change. Numbers of
Adélie penguin The Adélie penguin (''Pygoscelis adeliae'') is a species of penguin common along the entire coast of the Antarctic continent, which is the only place where it is found. It is the most widespread penguin species, and, along with the emperor peng ...
s,
chinstrap penguin The chinstrap penguin (''Pygoscelis antarcticus'') is a species of penguin that inhabits a variety of islands and shores in the Southern Pacific and the Antarctic Oceans. Its name stems from the narrow black band under its head, which makes it a ...
s,
emperor penguin The emperor penguin (''Aptenodytes forsteri'') is the tallest and heaviest of all living penguin species and is Endemism in birds, endemic to Antarctica. The male and female are similar in plumage and size, reaching in length and weighing fr ...
and
king penguin The king penguin (''Aptenodytes patagonicus'') is the second largest species of penguin, smaller than but somewhat similar in appearance to the emperor penguin. King penguins mainly eat lanternfish, squid, and krill. On foraging trips, king pen ...
s have already been declining, while the number of
gentoo penguin The gentoo penguin ( ) (''Pygoscelis papua'') is a penguin species (or possibly a species complex) in the genus ''Pygoscelis'', most closely related to the Adélie penguin (''P. adeliae'') and the chinstrap penguin (''P. antarcticus''). The earl ...
s has increased. Gentoo penguins, which are ice intolerant and use mosses as nesting material, have been able to spread into previously inaccessible territories and substantially increase in number. The vulnerable penguin species can respond through
acclimatization Acclimatization or acclimatisation ( also called acclimation or acclimatation) is the process in which an individual organism adjusts to a change in its environment (such as a change in altitude, temperature, humidity, photoperiod, or pH), ...
,
adaptation In biology, adaptation has three related meanings. Firstly, it is the dynamic evolutionary process of natural selection that fits organisms to their environment, enhancing their evolutionary fitness. Secondly, it is a state reached by the p ...
, or range shift. Range shift through dispersal leads to colonization elsewhere but results in local extinction. As early as 2008, it was estimated every Southern Ocean temperature increase of reduces king penguin populations by nine percent. Under the worst-case warming scenario, king penguins will permanently lose at least two of their current eight breeding sites, and 70% of the species (1.1 million pairs) will have to relocate to avoid extinction. Emperor penguin populations may be at a similar risk; with no climate mitigation, 80% of populations are at risk of extinction by 2100. With Paris Agreement temperature goals in place, that number may fall to 31% under the goal, and to 19% under the goal. A 27-year study of the largest colony of
Magellanic penguin The Magellanic penguin (''Spheniscus magellanicus'') is a South American penguin, breeding in coastal Patagonia, including Argentina, Chile, and the Falkland Islands, with some bird migration, migrating to Brazil and Uruguay, where they are occas ...
s that was published in 2014 found extreme weather caused by climate change kills seven percent of penguin chicks in an average year, accounting for up to 50% of all chick deaths in some years. Since 1987, the number of breeding pairs in the colony has fallen by 24%. Chinstrap penguins are also in decline, mainly due to a corresponding decline of Antarctic krill. It is estimated while Adélie penguins will retain some habitat past 2099, one-third of colonies along the West Antarctic Peninsula – around 20% of the species – will be in decline by 2060.


Terrestrial ecosystems

On the Antarctic continent,
lichen A lichen ( , ) is a hybrid colony (biology), colony of algae or cyanobacteria living symbiotically among hypha, filaments of multiple fungus species, along with yeasts and bacteria embedded in the cortex or "skin", in a mutualism (biology), m ...
s (386 known species),
moss Mosses are small, non-vascular plant, non-vascular flowerless plants in the taxonomic phylum, division Bryophyta (, ) ''sensu stricto''. Bryophyta (''sensu lato'', Wilhelm Philippe Schimper, Schimp. 1879) may also refer to the parent group bryo ...
es (133 species),
ice algae Ice algae are any of the various types of algal communities found in annual and multi-year sea, and terrestrial lake ice or glacier ice. On sea ice in the polar oceans, ice algae communities play an important role in primary production. The timi ...
, and
liverwort Liverworts are a group of non-vascular land plants forming the division Marchantiophyta (). They may also be referred to as hepatics. Like mosses and hornworts, they have a gametophyte-dominant life cycle, in which cells of the plant carry ...
s (27 species) are mainly found in coastal areas. In the Antarctic Peninsula, green snow algae have a combined biomass of around . As glaciers retreat, they expose areas that often become colonized by pioneer lichen species. Warming of the Antarctic Peninsula had increased growth rates of mosses four-fold; on the other hand, moss populations in areas of Antarctica which have become drier have deteriorated in spite of this warming. The reduction in precipitation in East Antarctica had turned many green mosses from green to red or brown as they respond to this drought. ''Schistidium'' ''antarctici'' had declined, while the desiccation-tolerant species '' Bryum pseudotriquetrum'' and ''
Ceratodon purpureus ''Ceratodon purpureus'' is a dioicous moss with a color ranging from yellow-green to red. The height amounts to 3 centimeters. It is found worldwide, mainly in urban areas and next to roads on dry sand soils. It can grow in a very wide variety of ...
'' have increased. Likewise, lichens have grown more rapidly due to warming where it does not interfere with precipitation, such as on
Livingston Island Livingston Island (Russian name ''Smolensk'', ) is an Antarctic island in the Southern Ocean, part of the South Shetland Islands, South Shetlands Archipelago, a group of List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands, Antarctic islands north of the ...
, but declined where snowfall had become more intense and buries them more often, like on
South Shetland Islands The South Shetland Islands are a group of List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands, Antarctic islands located in the Drake Passage with a total area of . They lie about north of the Antarctic Peninsula, and between southwest of the n ...
. The Antarctic ozone hole has led to an increase in
UV-B Ultraviolet radiation, also known as simply UV, is electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths of 10–400 nanometers, shorter than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays. UV radiation is present in sunlight and constitutes about 10% of th ...
radiation, which causes observed damage to living cells, reducing their capacity to
photosynthesize Photosynthesis ( ) is a system of biological processes by which photosynthetic organisms, such as most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, convert light energy, typically from sunlight, into the chemical energy necessary to fuel their metaboli ...
. Moreover, greater warming brings more people to Antarctica, and local flora had never experienced their presence before, as even footprints directly modify their habitat. One estimate suggests every additional person at an
Antarctica research station Multiple governments have set up permanent research stations in Antarctica and these bases are widely distributed. Unlike the drifting ice stations set up in the Arctic, the current research stations of the Antarctic are constructed either on ...
on average disturbs an area close to 1,000 football fields. The only native
vascular plant Vascular plants (), also called tracheophytes (, ) or collectively tracheophyta (; ), are plants that have lignin, lignified tissues (the xylem) for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant. They also have a specialized non-lignified Ti ...
s on continental Antarctica are Antarctic hairgrass and
Antarctic pearlwort ''Colobanthus quitensis'', also known as the Antarctic pearlwort, is one of two native flowering plants found in the Antarctic region, the other being Deschampsia antarctica, Antarctic hair grass. It has yellow flowers and grows about tall, givi ...
, which are found on the Antarctic Peninsula. Increased temperatures have boosted photosynthesis and allowed these species to increase their population and range. Other plant species are increasingly likely to spread to Antarctica as the climate continues to warm and as human activity on the continent increases.
Annual bluegrass ''Poa annua'', or annual meadow grass (known in America more commonly as annual bluegrass or simply poa), is a widespread low-growing turfgrass in temperate climates. Notwithstanding the reference to annual plant in its name, perennial bio-types ...
already maintains stable populations on the Antarctic islands, and it is expected to become successfully established in coastal Antarctica around midcentury under high warming. Based on seed trait analysis, 16 other species are considered capable of invading Antarctica successfully in the near future.


Effects of human development

Tourism in Antarctica Tourism started in Antarctica by the sea in the 1960s. Air overflights started in the 1970s with sightseeing flights by airliners from Australia and New Zealand, and were resumed in the 1990s. The (summer) tour season lasts from November to Mar ...
has significantly increased since 2020; 74,400 tourists arrived there in late 2019 and early 2020. The development of Antarctica for the purposes of industry, tourism, and an increase in research facilities may put pressure on the continent and threaten its status as largely untouched land. Regulated tourism in Antarctica brings about awareness, and encourages the investment and public support needed to preserve Antarctica's distinctive environment. An unmitigated loss of ice on land and sea could greatly reduce its attractiveness. Policy can be used to increase climate-change resilience through the protection of ecosystems. Ships that operate in Antarctic waters adhere to the international Polar Code, which includes regulations and safety measures such as operational training and assessments, the control of oil discharge, appropriate sewage disposal, and the prevention of pollution by toxic liquids.
Antarctic Specially Protected Area An Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) is an area on the continent of Antarctica, or on nearby islands, which is protected by scientists and several different international bodies. The protected areas were established in 1961 under the Antarc ...
s (ASPA) and
Antarctic Specially Managed Area An Antarctic Specially Managed Area (ASMA) is a protected area on the continent of Antarctica Antarctica () is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by t ...
s (ASMA) are designated by the
Antarctic Treaty The Antarctic (, ; commonly ) is the polar region of Earth that surrounds the South Pole, lying within the Antarctic Circle. It is diametrically opposite of the Arctic region around the North Pole. The Antarctic comprises the continent of A ...
to protect flora and fauna. Both ASPAs and ASMAs restrict entry but to different extents, with ASPAs being the highest level of protection. Designation of ASPAs has decreased 84% since the 1980s despite a rapid increase in tourism, which may bring additional stressors to the natural environment and ecosystems. To alleviate stress on Antarctic ecosystems posed by climate change and the rapid increase in tourism, much of the scientific community advocates for an increase in protected areas like ASPAs to improve Antarctica's resilience to rising temperatures.


See also

* 2024 Antarctica heat wave *
ANDEEP The ''Antarctic Benthic Deep-Sea Biodiversity Project (ANDEEP)'' is an international project to investigate deep-water biology of the Scotia and Weddell seas. Benthic The benthic zone is the ecological region at the lowest level of a body of wa ...
*
Climate of Antarctica Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorol ...
*
Climate change in the Arctic Due to climate change in the Arctic, this polar region is expected to become "profoundly different" by 2050. The speed of change is "among the highest in the world", with the rate of warming being 3-4 times faster than the global average. This w ...
*
Register of Antarctic Marine Species Register or registration may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Music * Register (music), the relative "height" or range of a note, melody, part, instrument, etc. * ''Register'', a 2017 album by Travis Miller * Registration (organ), ...


References

{{Climate change regions, state=expanded Environment of Antarctica Climate of Antarctica
Antarctica Antarctica () is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean (also known as the Antarctic Ocean), it contains the geographic South Pole. ...
Effects of climate change