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Beta Blockers
Beta blockers, also spelled β-blockers, are a class of medications that are predominantly used to manage abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmia), and to protect the heart from a second heart attack after a first heart attack (secondary prevention). They are also widely used to treat high blood pressure, although they are no longer the first choice for initial treatment of most people. Beta blockers are competitive antagonists that block the receptor sites for the endogenous catecholamines epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) on adrenergic beta receptors, of the sympathetic nervous system, which mediates the fight-or-flight response. Beta-adrenergic receptors are found on cells of the heart muscles, smooth muscles, airways, arteries, kidneys, and other tissues that are part of the sympathetic nervous system and lead to stress responses, especially when they are stimulated by epinephrine (adrenaline). Beta blockers interfere with the binding to the receptor ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hypertension
Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a Chronic condition, long-term Disease, medical condition in which the blood pressure in the artery, arteries is persistently elevated. High blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms itself. It is, however, a major risk factor for stroke, coronary artery disease, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, peripheral arterial disease, vision loss, chronic kidney disease, and dementia. Hypertension is a major cause of premature death worldwide. High blood pressure is classified as essential hypertension, primary (essential) hypertension or secondary hypertension. About 90–95% of cases are primary, defined as high blood pressure due to non-specific lifestyle and Genetics, genetic factors. Lifestyle factors that increase the risk include excess salt in the diet, overweight, excess body weight, smoking, physical inactivity and Alcohol (drug), alcohol use. The remaining 5–10% of cases are categorized as secondary hypertension, d ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Beta-adrenergic Receptors
The adrenergic receptors or adrenoceptors are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are targets of many catecholamines like norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline) produced by the body, but also many medications like beta blockers, beta-2 (β2) agonists and alpha-2 (α2) agonists, which are used to treat high blood pressure and asthma, for example. Many cells have these receptors, and the binding of a catecholamine to the receptor will generally stimulate the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). The SNS is responsible for the fight-or-flight response, which is triggered by experiences such as exercise or fear-causing situations. This response dilates pupils, increases heart rate, mobilizes energy, and diverts blood flow from non-essential organs to skeletal muscle. These effects together tend to increase physical performance momentarily. History By the turn of the 19th century, it was agreed that the stimulation of sympathetic nerves could cause dif ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Meta-analyses
Meta-analysis is a method of synthesis of quantitative data from multiple independent studies addressing a common research question. An important part of this method involves computing a combined effect size across all of the studies. As such, this statistical approach involves extracting effect sizes and variance measures from various studies. By combining these effect sizes the statistical power is improved and can resolve uncertainties or discrepancies found in individual studies. Meta-analyses are integral in supporting research grant proposals, shaping treatment guidelines, and influencing health policies. They are also pivotal in summarizing existing research to guide future studies, thereby cementing their role as a fundamental methodology in metascience. Meta-analyses are often, but not always, important components of a systematic review. History The term "meta-analysis" was coined in 1976 by the statistician Gene Glass, who stated ''"Meta-analysis refers to the analysi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Pharmacology
Pharmacology is the science of drugs and medications, including a substance's origin, composition, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, therapeutic use, and toxicology. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. The field encompasses drug composition and properties, functions, sources, synthesis and drug design, molecular and cellular mechanisms, organ/systems mechanisms, signal transduction/cellular communication, molecular diagnostics, interactions, chemical biology, therapy, and medical applications and antipathogenic capabilities. The two main areas of pharmacology are pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. Pharmacodynamics studies the effects of a drug on biological systems, and pharmacokinetics studies the effects of biological systems on a drug. In broad terms, pharmacod ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Angina Pectoris
Angina, also known as angina pectoris, is chest pain or pressure, usually caused by insufficient blood flow to the heart muscle (myocardium). It is most commonly a symptom of coronary artery disease. Angina is typically the result of partial obstruction or spasm of the arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle. The main mechanism of coronary artery obstruction is atherosclerosis as part of coronary artery disease. Other causes of angina include abnormal heart rhythms, heart failure and, less commonly, anemia. The term derives , and can therefore be translated as "a strangling feeling in the chest". An urgent medical assessment is suggested to rule out serious medical conditions. There is a relationship between severity of angina and degree of oxygen deprivation in the heart muscle. However, the severity of angina does not always match the degree of oxygen deprivation to the heart or the risk of a heart attack (myocardial infarction). Some people may experience s ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Pronethalol
Pronethalol (also known as nethalide or compound 38,174; trade name Alderlin) was an early non-selective beta blocker clinical candidate. It was the first beta blocker to be developed by James Black and associates at Imperial Chemical Industries, and the first to enter clinical use, in November 1963. However, it was never used widely due to carcinogenicity in mice, which was thought to result from formation of a carcinogenic naphthalene epoxide metabolite, and was superseded by propranolol from 1965 onward. See also * Beta blocker Beta blockers, also spelled β-blockers, are a class of medications that are predominantly used to manage abnormal heart rhythms ( arrhythmia), and to protect the heart from a second heart attack after a first heart attack ( secondary prevention ... * Discovery and development of beta-blockers * Naphthylaminopropane References Beta blockers 2-Naphthyl compounds Naphthylethylamines Phenylethanolamines {{antihypertensive-stub ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
James Black (pharmacologist)
Sir James Whyte Black (14 June 1924 – 22 March 2010) was a Scottish physician and pharmacologist. Together with Gertrude B. Elion and George H. Hitchings, he shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1988 for pioneering strategies for rational drug-design, which, in his case, led to the development of propranolol and cimetidine. Black established a Veterinary Physiology department at the University of Glasgow, where he became interested in the effects of adrenaline on the human heart. He went to work for ICI Pharmaceuticals in 1958 and, while there, developed propranolol, a beta blocker used for the treatment of heart disease. Black was also responsible for the development of cimetidine, an H2 receptor antagonist, a drug used to treat stomach ulcers. Early life and education Black was born on 14 June 1924 in Uddingston, Lanarkshire, the fourth of five sons of a Baptist family which traced its origins to Balquhidder, Perthshire. His father was a mining engineer. ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Beta-3 Adrenergic Receptor
The beta-3 adrenergic receptor (β3-adrenoceptor), also known as ADRB3, is a beta-adrenergic receptor, and also denotes the human gene encoding it. Function Actions of the β3 receptor include *Enhancement of lipolysis in adipose tissue. *Thermogenesis in skeletal muscle Page 163 It is located mainly in adipose tissue and is involved in the regulation of lipolysis and thermogenesis. Some β3 agonists have demonstrated antistress effects in animal studies, suggesting it also has a role in the central nervous system (CNS). β3 receptors are found in the gallbladder, urinary bladder, and in brown adipose tissue. Their role in gallbladder physiology is unknown, but they are thought to play a role in lipolysis and thermogenesis in brown fat. In the urinary bladder it is thought to cause relaxation of the bladder and prevention of urination. Mechanism of action Beta adrenergic receptors are involved in the epinephrine- and norepinephrine-induced activation of adenylate cyclase t ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Beta-2 Adrenergic Receptor
The beta-2 adrenergic receptor (β2 adrenoreceptor), also known as ADRB2, is a cell membrane-spanning beta-adrenergic receptor that binds epinephrine (adrenaline), a hormone and neurotransmitter whose signaling, via adenylate cyclase stimulation through trimeric Gs proteins, increases cAMP, and, via downstream L-type calcium channel interaction, mediates physiologic responses such as smooth muscle relaxation and bronchodilation. Robert Lefkowitz and Brian Kobilka's study of the beta-2 adrenergic receptor as a model system earned them the 2012 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for studies of G-protein-coupled receptors". The official symbol for the human gene encoding the β2 adrenoreceptor is ''ADRB2''. Gene The gene is intronless. Different polymorphic forms, point mutations, and/or downregulation of this gene are associated with nocturnal asthma, obesity and type 2 diabetes. Structure The 3D crystallographic structure (see figure and links to the right) of the β2-adrener ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Beta-1 Adrenergic Receptor
The beta-1 adrenergic receptor (β1 adrenoceptor), also known as ADRB1, can refer to either the protein-encoding gene (gene ADRB1) or one of the four adrenergic receptors. It is a G-protein coupled receptor associated with the Gs heterotrimeric G-protein that is expressed predominantly in cardiac tissue. In addition to cardiac tissue, beta-1 adrenergic receptors are also expressed in the cerebral cortex. Historical Context W. B. Cannon postulated that there were two chemical transmitters or sympathins while studying the sympathetic nervous system in 1933. These E and I sympathins were involved with excitatory and inhibitory responses. In 1948, Raymond Ahlquist published a manuscript in the ''American Journal of Physiology'' establishing the idea of adrenaline having distinct actions on both alpha and beta receptors. Shortly afterward, Eli Lilly Laboratories synthesized the first beta-blocker, dichloroisoproterenol. General Information Structure ADRB-1 is a transmembra ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Kidney
In humans, the kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped blood-filtering organ (anatomy), organs that are a multilobar, multipapillary form of mammalian kidneys, usually without signs of external lobulation. They are located on the left and right in the retroperitoneal space, and in adult humans are about in length. They receive blood from the paired renal artery, renal arteries; blood exits into the paired renal veins. Each kidney is attached to a ureter, a tube that carries excreted urine to the urinary bladder, bladder. The kidney participates in the control of the volume of various body fluids, fluid osmolality, Acid-base homeostasis, acid-base balance, various electrolyte concentrations, and removal of toxins. Filtration occurs in the glomerulus (kidney), glomerulus: one-fifth of the blood volume that enters the kidneys is filtered. Examples of substances reabsorbed are solute-free water, sodium, bicarbonate, glucose, and amino acids. Examples of substances secreted are hy ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Artery
An artery () is a blood vessel in humans and most other animals that takes oxygenated blood away from the heart in the systemic circulation to one or more parts of the body. Exceptions that carry deoxygenated blood are the pulmonary arteries in the pulmonary circulation that carry blood to the lungs for oxygenation, and the umbilical arteries in the fetal circulation that carry deoxygenated blood to the placenta. It consists of a multi-layered artery wall wrapped into a tube-shaped channel. Arteries contrast with veins, which carry deoxygenated blood back towards the heart; or in the pulmonary and fetal circulations carry oxygenated blood to the lungs and fetus respectively. Structure The anatomy of arteries can be separated into gross anatomy, at the macroscopic scale, macroscopic level, and histology, microanatomy, which must be studied with a microscope. The arterial system of the human body is divided into systemic circulation, systemic arteries, carrying blood from the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
