Cohong
The ''Cohong'', sometimes spelled or , a guild of Chinese merchants or ''hongs'', operated the import–export monopoly in Canton (present-day Guangzhou) during the Qing dynasty (16441911). During the century prior to the First Opium War of 1839–1842, trade relations between China and Europe took place exclusively via the ''Cohong'' – a system formalised by an imperial edict of the Qianlong Emperor in 1738. The Chinese merchants who made up the ''Cohong'' were referred to as (行商) and their foreign counterparts as (洋行,literally "foreign traders"). 1738 1738 1738 1738 1738 Foundation and structure In 1738, the ''Baoshang'' system was established. This system granted a number of Chinese merchants license to trade with Western merchants as long as they helped to collect duties from the Westerners, successfully aligning trading interests with the government's revenue collection. This was the predecessor for the later Cohong system. According to John Phipps, auth ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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First Opium War
The First Opium War ( zh, t=第一次鴉片戰爭, p=Dìyīcì yāpiàn zhànzhēng), also known as the Anglo-Chinese War, was a series of military engagements fought between the British Empire and the Chinese Qing dynasty between 1839 and 1842. The immediate issue was the Chinese enforcement of their ban on the opium trade by seizing private opium stocks from mainly British merchants at Guangzhou (then named ''Canton'') and threatening to impose the death penalty for future offenders. Despite the opium ban, the British government supported the merchants' demand for compensation for seized goods, and insisted on the principles of free trade and equal diplomatic recognition with China. Opium was Britain's single most profitable commodity trade of the 19th century. After months of tensions between the two states, the Royal Navy launched an expedition in June 1840, which ultimately defeated the Chinese using technologically superior ships and weapons by August 1842. The British ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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Canton System
The Canton System (1757–1842; zh, t=一口通商, p=Yīkǒu tōngshāng, j=jat1 hau2 tung1 soeng1, "Single orttrading relations") served as a means for Qing China to control trade with the West within its own country by focusing all trade on the southern port of Canton (now Guangzhou). The protectionist policy arose in 1757 as a response to a perceived political and commercial threat from abroad on the part of successive Chinese emperors. From the late seventeenth century onwards, Chinese merchants, known as Hongs (), managed all trade in the port. Operating from the Thirteen Factories located on the banks of the Pearl River outside Canton, in 1760, by order of the Qing Qianlong Emperor, they became officially sanctioned as a monopoly known as the '' Cohong''. Thereafter Chinese merchants dealing with foreign trade ( zh, t=洋行, p=yángháng, links=no, j=joeng4 hong2; "ocean traders", i.e. "overseas traders" or "foreign traders") acted through the ''Cohong'' under th ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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Thirteen Factories
The Thirteen Factories, also known as the , was a neighbourhood along the Pearl River in southwestern Guangzhou (Canton) in the Qing Empire from to 1856 around modern day Xiguan, in Guangzhou's Liwan District. These warehouses and stores were the principal and sole legal site of most Western trade with China from 1757 to 1842. The factories were destroyed by fire in 1822 by accident, in 1841 amid the First Opium War, and in 1856 at the onset of the Second Opium War. The factories' importance diminished after the opening of the treaty ports and the end of the Canton System under the terms of the 1842 Anglo-Chinese Treaty of Nanking. After the Second Opium War, the factories were not rebuilt at their former site south of Guangzhou's old walled city but moved, first to Henan Island across the Pearl River and then to Shamian Island south of Guangzhou's western suburbs. Their former site is now part of . Terminology The "factories" were not workshops or manufacturi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Qing Dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China (1912–1949), Republic of China. At its height of power, the empire stretched from the Sea of Japan in the east to the Pamir Mountains in the west, and from the Mongolian Plateau in the north to the South China Sea in the south. Originally emerging from the Later Jin (1616–1636), Later Jin dynasty founded in 1616 and proclaimed in Shenyang in 1636, the dynasty seized control of the Ming capital Beijing and North China in 1644, traditionally considered the start of the dynasty's rule. The dynasty lasted until the Xinhai Revolution of October 1911 led to the abdication of the last emperor in February 1912. The multi-ethnic Qing dynasty Legacy of the Qing dynasty, assembled the territoria ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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Hong (business)
A hong () was a type of Chinese merchant establishment and its associated type of building. Hongs arose in Guangzhou (formerly known as Canton) as intermediaries between Western and Chinese merchants during the 18th and 19th centuries under the Canton System. Canton (Guangzhou) The name "hong" () originally referred to the row of factories built outside of the city walls of Canton near the Pearl River. The Thirteen Factories were used during the Canton System period to host foreign traders and the products purchased, under the aegis of the '' cohong''. The hongs (or Factories) were usually owned by hong merchants such as Pan Zhencheng (also known as Puankhequa). The Cantonese hongs changed location several times after fires and became less important after the First Opium War (18391842), as Canton lost its monopoly of foreign trade and Hong Kong was ceded to the British as a colony. Hong Kong In Hong Kong, the name ''hong'' is used to designate major business house ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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Guild
A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular territory. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradespeople belonging to a professional association. They sometimes depended on grants of letters patent from a monarch or other ruler to enforce the flow of trade to their self-employed members, and to retain ownership of tools and the supply of materials, but most were regulated by the local government. Guild members found guilty of cheating the public would be fined or banned from the guild. A lasting legacy of traditional guilds are the guildhalls constructed and used as guild meeting-places. Typically the key "privilege" was that only guild members were allowed to sell their goods or practice their skill within the city. There might be controls on minimum or maximum prices, hours of trading, numbers of apprentices, and many other things. Critics argued that these rules reduced Free market, fre ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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Treaty Of Nanking
The Treaty of Nanking was the peace treaty which ended the First Opium War (1839–1842) between United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Great Britain and the Qing dynasty of China on 29 August 1842. It was the first of what the Chinese later termed the "unequal treaties". In the wake of China's military defeat, with British warships poised to attack Nanjing (then romanized as Nanking), British and Chinese officials negotiated on board HMS Cornwallis (1813), HMS ''Cornwallis'' anchored in the Yangtze at the city. On 29 August, British representative Sir Henry Pottinger and Qing representatives Keying (official), Keying, Yilibu, and signed the treaty, which consisted of thirteen articles. The treaty was ratified by the Daoguang Emperor on 27 October and Queen Victoria on 28 December. The exchange of ratification took place in British Hong Kong, Hong Kong on 26 June 1843. The treaty required the Chinese to pay an indemnity, to cede the Island of Hong Kong to the British ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Howqua
Wu Bingjian (; 17694 September 1843), trading as "Houqua" and better known in the West as "Howqua" or "Howqua II", was a hong merchant in the Thirteen Factories, head of the '' E-wo hong'' and leader of the Canton Cohong. He was once the richest man in the world. Biography A Hokkien by his paternal ancestry with ancestry from Quanzhou, Wu was known to the West as ''Howqua'', as was his father, Wu Guorong, the founder of the family business or '' hong''. The name "Howqua" is a romanization, in his native Hokkien language, of the business name under which he traded, "浩官" (). He became rich on the trade between China and the British Empire in the middle of the 19th century during the First Opium War. Perhaps the wealthiest man in China during the nineteenth century, Howqua was the senior of the hong merchants in Canton, one of the few authorized to trade silk and porcelain with foreigners. In an 1822 fire which burned down many of the cohongs, the silver that melted allege ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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Qianlong Emperor
The Qianlong Emperor (25 September 17117 February 1799), also known by his temple name Emperor Gaozong of Qing, personal name Hongli, was the fifth Emperor of China, emperor of the Qing dynasty and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. He reigned officially from 1735 until his abdication in 1796, but retained ultimate power subsequently until his death in 1799, making him one of the longest-reigning monarchs in history as well as one of the longest-lived. The fourth and favourite son of the Yongzheng Emperor, Qianlong ascended the throne in 1735. A highly ambitious military leader, he led Ten Great Campaigns, a series of campaigns into Inner Asia, Burma, Nepal and Vietnam and suppressed rebellions in Jinchuan County, Jinchuan and Taiwan. During his lifetime, he was given the deified title Emperor Manjushri by the Qing's Tibetan subjects. Domestically, Qianlong was a major patron of the arts as well as a prolific writer. He sponsored the compilation of the ''Siku Qu ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Thirteen Colonies
The Thirteen Colonies were the British colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America which broke away from the British Crown in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), and joined to form the United States of America. The Thirteen Colonies in their traditional groupings were: the New England Colonies (New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut); the Middle Colonies ( New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware); and the Southern Colonies (Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia). These colonies were part of British America, which also included territory in The Floridas, the Caribbean, and what is today Canada. The Thirteen Colonies were separately administered under the Crown, but had similar political, constitutional, and legal systems, and each was dominated by Protestant English-speakers. The first of the colonies, Virginia, was established at Jamestown, in 1607. Maryland, Pennsylvania, and the New England Colon ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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Hanseatic League
The Hanseatic League was a Middle Ages, medieval commercial and defensive network of merchant guilds and market towns in Central Europe, Central and Northern Europe, Northern Europe. Growing from a few Northern Germany, North German towns in the late 12th century, the League expanded between the 13th and 15th centuries and ultimately encompassed nearly 200 settlements across eight modern-day countries, ranging from Tallinn in Estonia in the east, Bergen (Bjørgvin) in Norway to the North to the Netherlands in the west, and extended inland as far as Cologne, Prussia (region), the Prussian regions and Kraków, Poland. The League began as a collection of loosely associated groups of German traders and towns aiming to expand their commercial interests, including protection against robbery. Over time, these arrangements evolved into the League, offering traders toll privileges and protection on affiliated territory and trade routes. Economic interdependence and familial connections am ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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Guild Of Romanists
The Guild of Romanists or Confrérie van romanisten was a society which was active in Antwerp from the late 16th to the late 18th century. Its membership was made up of notables and artists from Antwerp who had visited Rome. It offered artists access to the networks of Antwerp's urban elites.Rengenier C. Rittersma, ''Luxury in the Low Countries: Miscellaneous Reflections on Netherlandish Material Culture, 1500 to the Present'', Asp / Vubpress / Upa, 2010, p. 111 History The Guild was established in 1572 in Antwerp's Cathedral of Our Lady under the patronage of St. Paul and St. Peter and was therefore also known as the 'Broederschap van de HH. Petrus en Paulus' (Confrérie of St. Peter and Paul). It was a condition of membership to have visited Rome. The condition of having visited Rome to enjoy membership appears to have been strictly enforced and art historians accept membership of the Guild as evidence of visits to Rome that are (in the case of Fyt etc.) otherwise undocumente ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |