The soldier flies (Stratiomyidae, sometimes misspelled as Stratiomyiidae, from Greek - soldier; - fly) are a family of

flies Flies are insects of the Order (biology), order Diptera, the name being derived from the Ancient Greek, Greek δι- ''di-'' "two", and πτερόν ''pteron'' "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwin ...

(historically placed in the now-obsolete group

Orthorrhapha Orthorrhapha is a circumscriptional name which historically was used in entomology for an infraorder of Brachycera, one of the two suborders into which the order Diptera, the flies, are divided. As the group was paraphyletic, it has not been used ...

). The family contains over 2,700 species in over 380 extant genera worldwide. Larvae are found in a wide array of locations, mostly in wetlands, damp places in soil, sod, under bark, in animal excrement, and in decaying organic matter. Adults are found near larval habitats. They are diverse in size and shape, though they commonly are partly or wholly metallic green, or somewhat wasplike mimics, marked with black and yellow or green and sometimes metallic. They are often rather inactive flies which typically rest with their wings placed one above the other over the abdomen. The

Stratiomyinae Stratiomyinae is a subfamily of flies in the family Stratiomyidae. Genera *Tribe Oxycerini **'' Caloparyphus'' James, 1939 **''Euparyphus'' Gerstaecker, 1857 **'' Oxycera'' Meigen, 1803 **'' Oxycerina'' Rozkošný & Woodley, 2010 **'' Vanoyia ...

are a subfamily that tend to have an affinity to aquatic environments.

Etymology

In English, the Stratiomidi are commonly called soldier flies, in German ''Waffenfliegen'' ("armed flies"). In the Italian language, Duméril (1832) used the common names term ''stratiomidi'' and ''mosche armate'' in the ''Dizionario delle Scienze Naturali'' (''Dictionary of Natural Sciences''). The name might originate from thoracic spines of adults that resemble armor or striped larvae that resemble uniformed soldiers.

Characteristics

These flies range from very small to large, 3 to 20 mm long. They have antennae in three segments, with the terminal segment annulated. Ocelli are present; the lower orbital bristles are absent. The postvertical orbital bristles are absent, as are the vibrissae. As for the mouthparts, the proboscis is short and not piercing; the maxillary palps are mono- or bisegmented. The wings have either a small discal cell, or the discal cell is absent. No subapical cell is seen, and a closed anal cell is present. The

costa Costa may refer to: Biology * Rib (Latin: ''costa''), in vertebrate anatomy * Costa (botany), the central strand of a plant leaf or thallus * Costa (coral), a stony rib, part of the skeleton of a coral * Costa (entomology), the leading edge of th ...

does not extend around the entire wing. The subcosta reaches the costa independently of vein 1, or joins vein 1 close to where it joins the costa. The leading-edge veins are often markedly stronger than the rest; vein 6 is present and reaches the wing margin, whereas vein 7 is present and does not reach the wing margin. The tibiae are without spurs.For a pictorial atlas explaining these terms, go to http://www.ento.csiro.au/biology/fly/fly.html Image:Stratiomyiidae Ptecticus Elongatus Soldier Fly 2459.jpg, ''P. elongatus'' lateral view Image:Stratiomyiidae Ptecticus Elongatus Soldier Fly 2453.jpg, ''P. elongatus'' Dorsal view Image:Stratiomyidae wing veins-1.svg, Stratiomyidae wing veins

Larvae and pupae

Larvae may be either aquatic or terrestrial. In regards to feeding, they may be

saprophagous Saprotrophic nutrition or lysotrophic nutrition is a process of chemoheterotrophic extracellular digestion involved in the processing of decayed (dead or waste) organic matter. It occurs in saprotrophs, and is most often associated with fungi ...

mycophagous Fungivory or mycophagy is the process of organisms consuming fungi. Many different organisms have been recorded to gain their energy from consuming fungi, including birds, mammals, insects, plants, amoebas, gastropods, nematodes, bacteria and othe ...

, or predatory. The larvae are

apodous Many vertebrates are limbless, limb-reduced, or apodous, with a body plan consisting of a head and vertebral column, but no adjoining limbs such as legs or fins. Jawless fish are limbless but may have preceded the evolution of vertebrate limbs, w ...

and eucephalic and cylindrical-fusiform, depressed dorsoventrally and distinctly segmented. The size of the mature larva is variable, depending on the species, from less than 1 cm in length up to 5 cm. The head is much narrower than the thorax and partially sunken into it. The integument is strongly sclerotized with the cuticle containing inclusions of calcium carbonate with hexagonal crystals which form a characteristic microsculpture. In aquatic species, the last urite is thin and more or less elongated forming a breathing tube, which ends with a tuft of waterproofing bristles. It is used to draw air from the surface, with the larva remaining submerged. Image:Soldier fly larva.jpg, Larva of ''

Stratiomys longicornis ''Stratiomys longicornis'', the long-horned general, is a European species of soldier fly The soldier flies (Stratiomyidae, sometimes misspelled as Stratiomyiidae, from Greek - soldier; - fly) are a family of flies (historically placed in t ...

'' File:Stratiomys larvae.ogv, Larva of ''

'' (video) File:Oplodontha viridula - 2013-08-22.webm, Larva of ''

Oplodontha viridula ''Oplodontha viridula'', the common green colonel, is a European species of soldier fly. Description Body length 6–8 mm. Purple eyes in life with bands and spots. Thorax brilliant black, coarsely punctured and with short dull yellow pube ...

'' (video) The pupa develops inside the

exuvia In biology, exuviae are the remains of an exoskeleton and related structures that are left after ecdysozoans (including insects, crustaceans and arachnids) have molted. The exuviae of an animal can be important to biologists as they can often b ...

of the last larval stage, a feature common to all Stratiomyomorpha. The pupation within the larval exuvia constitutes a case of evolutionary convergence with

Cyclorrhapha Cyclorrhapha is an Taxon#Ranks, unranked taxon within the infraorder (biology), infraorder Muscomorpha. They are called "Cyclorrhapha" ('circular-seamed flies') with reference to the circular aperture through which the adult escapes the puparium. ...

, in which group is the formation of a true puparium.

Biology

The larvae of Stratiomyidae are characterized by a wide variety of behaviours and habitats. They are mainly scavengers, but aquatic species also feed on algae. Less frequently, they may be

predators Predation is a biological interaction in which one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill ...

herbivores A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically evolved to feed on plants, especially upon vascular tissues such as foliage, fruits or seeds, as the main component of its diet. These more broadly also encompass animals that eat ...

. The aquatic larvae are sometimes characterized by particularly specific habitat requirements. For example, several species colonize rocks covered by a thin layer of water (hygropetric); others are found in brackish water, and some in thermal springs. In general, though, Stratiomyidae larvae colonize stagnant waters or rivers near the shores, seeking the richest vegetation, algae, and debris. Terrestrial larvae are found in organic substrates: in decomposing vegetable matter and animal

excreta Excretion is elimination of metabolic waste, which is an essential process in all organisms. In vertebrates, this is primarily carried out by the lungs, kidneys, and skin. This is in contrast with secretion, where the substance may have specifi ...

, in moist soils and litter, under the bark of trees, etc. ''Inopus rubriceps'' (Macquart), the sugarcane soldier fly, is a pest: the larvae attack the roots of

sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of tall, Perennial plant, perennial grass (in the genus ''Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar Sugar industry, production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fib ...

in Australia. Adults visit flowers to feed on the sugar-containing nectar, or else do not feed at all, dedicating their short lives to reproduction. Unlike other dipterous scavengers, adults of Stratiomyidae do not have relationships with the growth substrate of the larvae, except for

oviposition The ovipositor is a tube-like organ used by some animals, especially insects, for the laying of eggs. In insects, an ovipositor consists of a maximum of three pairs of appendages. The details and morphology of the ovipositor vary, but typica ...

. Larval development takes place with a variable number of

moult In biology, moulting (British English), or molting (American English), also known as sloughing, shedding, or in many invertebrates, ecdysis, is a process by which an animal casts off parts of its body to serve some beneficial purpose, either at ...

s; depending on the species, up to 10 larval stages occur. Particularly well known is the post

embryo An embryo ( ) is the initial stage of development for a multicellular organism. In organisms that reproduce sexually, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization of the female egg cell by the male sp ...

nic development of ''Hermetia illucens'', whose larvae develop through six stages. Species of this fly may travel along with members of '' Polybioides raphigastra'' (a wasp species) through the practice of mimicry.

Systematics

The Stratiomyidae are closely related to the family of

Xylomyidae Xylomyidae is a family of flies known commonly as the wood soldier flies. They are xylophagous and are associated with dead or dying wood. Description For terms see Morphology of Diptera. These flies are 4 to 14 millimeters long. Their colora ...

, with which they share 10

synapomorphies In phylogenetics, an apomorphy (or derived trait) is a novel character or character state that has evolved from its ancestral form (or plesiomorphy). A synapomorphy is an apomorphy shared by two or more taxa and is therefore hypothesized to ...

, and they form a monophyletic clade with the family of

Pantophthalmidae Pantophthalmidae (sometimes spelled as Panthophthalmidae) is a small family of very large, robust flies, sometimes referred to as timber flies. There are 21 known species in two genera in the family, all of Neotropical distribution. Superficiall ...

with which they share 5 synapomorphies.

References

External links

Tree of Life: Stratiomyidae

Picture gallery from Diptera.info
195 photographs
Picture gallery from BugGuide

Family Stratiomyidae at EOL
Images. Flowers visited by adults.
Pest Information Wiki

Species lists

Palaearctic

Japan
{{Authority control Brachycera families Articles containing video clips Taxa named by Pierre André Latreille