Kamboja ( sa, कम्बोज) was a kingdom of Iron Age India that spanned parts of

South South is one of the cardinal directions or Points of the compass, compass points. The direction is the opposite of north and is perpendicular to both east and west. Etymology The word ''south'' comes from Old English ''sūþ'', from earlier Pro ...

and Central Asia, frequently mentioned in Sanskrit and Pali literature. Eponymous with the kingdom name, the Kambojas were an Indo-Iranian people of the Kshatriya caste inhabiting the Kamboja Mahajanapada region, forming one of the sixteen nations that made up ancient India from the sixth to fourth centuries BCE during the second urbanisation period. Earlier, during the late Vedic age, the Kambojas had emerged as an important part of the Indo Aryan Vedic people with a prominent place among the Kshatriya tribes of the Mahabharata. While historical boundaries of the Kambojas are varied, scholarly accounts altogether place the northern and western borders in present-day Tajikistan and eastern Uzbekistan, with eastern borders in present-day

Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir may refer to: * Kashmir, the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent * Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), a region administered by India as a union territory * Jammu and Kashmir (state), a region administered ...

, and southern borders in present-day Iran and southern Afghanistan.

Etymology

The name ''Kamboja'' may derive from ''Kam'' and ''bhoj'', or ''Kamma'' and ''boja'', referring to the people of a country known as "Kum" or "Kam". The mountainous highlands where the Jaxartes and its confluents arise are called the highlands of the

Komedes Komedes is the ethnonym of an ancient people in Central Asia. They were mentioned by the ancient Greek geographer Ptolemy in ''Geography'' ( CE). Traditional Hindu and Indian spellings included Kumuda, Kumuda-dvipa, and Parama Kambojas; and anc ...

by Ptolemy. Ammianus Marcellinus also names these mountains as ''Komedas''. The ''Kiu-mi-to'' in the writings of Xuanzang have also been identified with the ''Komudha-dvipa'' of the Puranic literature and the Iranian Kambojas. Scholars, such as Ernst Herzfeld, have suggested etymological links between some Indo-Aryan ethnonyms and some geonyms used by Iranian-speaking peoples of the Caucasus Mountains and

Caspian Caspian can refer to: *The Caspian Sea *The Caspian Depression, surrounding the northern part of the Caspian Sea *The Caspians, the ancient people living near the Caspian Sea *Caspian languages, collection of languages and dialects of Caspian peopl ...

basin. In particular, Kamboja somewhat resembles the hydronym ''Kambujiya'' – the Iranian name for the Iori/Gabirri river (modern Georgia/Azerbaijan). ''Kambujiya'' is also the root of Cambysene (an archaic name for the

Kakheti Kakheti ( ka, კახეთი ''K’akheti''; ) is a region (mkhare) formed in the 1990s in eastern Georgia from the historical province of Kakheti and the small, mountainous province of Tusheti. Telavi is its capital. The region comprises eigh ...

/ Balakan regions of Georgia and Azerbaijan) and the Persian personal name Cambyses. (A similar link is suggested between the Kura River, which is near the Iori, and the name of the Kurus and Kaurava mentioned in

vedic literature upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...

Geography

The historical boundaries detailing the confederation of the Kambojas is varied. All scholarly and literary accounts encompass a large area at a crossroads between South Asia, Central Asia and West Asia.

Scholarly accounts

D. C. Sircar Dineshchandra Sircar (1907–1985), also known as D. C. Sircar or D. C. Sarkar, was an epigraphist, historian, numismatist and folklorist, known particularly in India and Bangladesh for his work deciphering inscriptions. He was the Chief Ep ...

supposed the Kambojas to have lived in various settlements in the wide area lying between Punjab, Iran, to the south of

Balkh ), named for its green-tiled ''Gonbad'' ( prs, گُنبَد, dome), in July 2001 , pushpin_map=Afghanistan#Bactria#West Asia , pushpin_relief=yes , pushpin_label_position=bottom , pushpin_mapsize=300 , pushpin_map_caption=Location in Afghanistan ...

. The territory of the

Parama-Kamboja Parama Kamboja Kingdom was mentioned in the epic Mahabharata to be on the far north west along with the Bahlika, Uttara Madra and Uttara Kuru countries. It was located in parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Parama Kambo ...

, meanwhile, are thought to be farther north in the Trans-Pamirian territories comprising the

Zeravshan Zarafshon ( uz, Zarafshon / Зарафшон, fa, زرافشان) is a city in the center of Uzbekistan's Navoiy Region. Administratively, it is a district-level city, that includes the urban-type settlement Muruntau. It has an area of and it ...

valley, towards the

Farghana Fergana ( uz, Fargʻona/Фарғона, ), or Ferghana, is a district-level city and the capital of Fergana Region in eastern Uzbekistan. Fergana is about 420 km east of Tashkent, about 75 km west of Andijan, and less than 20 km fr ...

region, in the Scythia of the classical writers. Dr Buddha Prakash maintains that, based on the evidence of

Kalidasa Kālidāsa (''fl.'' 4th–5th century CE) was a Classical Sanskrit author who is often considered ancient India's greatest poet and playwright. His plays and poetry are primarily based on the Vedas, the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata and ...

's Raghuvamsha, Raghu defeated the Hunas on river Vamkshu (Raghu vamsha 4.68), and then he marched against the Kambojas (4.69-70). These Kambojas were of Iranian affinities who lived in Pamirs and Badakshan. Xuanzang calls this region ''Kiumito'' which is thought to be ''Komdei'' of Ptolemy and ''Kumadh'' or ''Kumedh'' of

Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...

writers (See: Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; India and the World, 1964, p 71, Dr Buddha Prakash; India and Central Asia, 1955, p 35, P. C. Bagch). Other scholars have also located the Kambojas and the Parama-Kambojas in the areas spanning

, Badakshan, the Pamirs and Kafiristan. Similarly, the mountainous region between the Oxus and Jaxartes in present day Tajikistan is also suggested as one location of the ancient Kambojas by other scholars. Separate scholarly pieces by Gankovski (1971) and Rashid (2002) mention the confederation of the Kambojas may have stretched from the valley of Rajouri to the regions of Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar. The central region is estimated to be in Paropamisadae, a region north-east of present-day Kabul, between the Hindu Kush and the Kunar River, and included the Kapisa. Some scholars place the capital of the Kamboja kingdom at

Rajapura Rajapura was a term used in the Mahabharata to describe either a major city of the Kalingas or the royal palace of the Kalinga in the city Rajahmandry, believed to be the capital of the Kalingas. Rajapura has also been listed as one of the capit ...

(modern Rajauri). The Kamboja Mahajanapada of Buddhist traditions refers to this branch.

Literary accounts

The ''Mahabharata'' locates the Kambojas on the near side of the Hindu Kush as neighbors to the Daradas, and the

s across the Hindu Kush as neighbors to the Rishikas (or

Tukhara The Tocharians, or Tokharians ( US: or ; UK: ), were speakers of Tocharian languages, Indo-European languages known from around 7600 documents from around 400 to 1200 AD, found on the northern edge of the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China) ...

s) of the Fergana region.Sethna, K. D. (2000) ''Problems of Ancient India'', New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.

History

The earliest reference to the Kambojas is in the works of Pāṇini, around the 5th century BCE. Other pre- Common Era references appear in the '' Manusmriti'' (2nd century) and parts of the '' Mahabharata'', both of which described the Kambojas as former kshatriyas (warrior caste).''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania'', Barbara A. West, Infobase Publishing (2009), p. 359 Their territories were located beyond

Gandhara Gandhāra is the name of an ancient region located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely in present-day north-west Pakistan and parts of south-east Afghanistan. The region centered around the Peshawar Vall ...

in present day eastern Afghanistan, where Buddha statues were built during the reign of Ashoka and the 3rd century BCE. The '' Edicts of Ashoka'' refers to the area under Kamboja control as being independent of the

Mauryan empire The Maurya Empire, or the Mauryan Empire, was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in the Indian subcontinent based in Magadha, having been founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, and existing in loose-knit fashion until 1 ...

in which it was situated. The two Kamboja settlements on either side of the Hindu Kush are also substantiated from Ptolemy's Geography, which refers to the ''Tambyzoi'' located north of the Hindu Kush on the river Oxus in

Bactria Bactria (; Bactrian: , ), or Bactriana, was an ancient region in Central Asia in Amu Darya's middle stream, stretching north of the Hindu Kush, west of the Pamirs and south of the Gissar range, covering the northern part of Afghanistan, southwe ...

, and the ''Ambautai'' people on the southern side of Hindukush in the Paropamisadae.Talbert 2000, p. 99 Scholars have identified the Ptolemian ''Tambyzoi'' and ''Ambautai as well as

'' with Sanskrit ''Kamboja''.

Kautiliya Chanakya (Sanskrit: चाणक्य; IAST: ', ; 375–283 BCE) was an ancient Indian polymath who was active as a teacher, author, strategist, philosopher, economist, jurist, and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified as Kauṭilya o ...

's ''

Arthashastra The ''Arthashastra'' ( sa, अर्थशास्त्रम्, ) is an Ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy and military strategy. Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya, is ...

'' and Ashoka's Edict No. XIII attest that the Kambojas followed a republican constitution. Pāṇini's Sutras tend to convey that the Kamboja of Pāṇini was a "Kshatriya monarchy", but "the special rule and the exceptional form of derivative" he gives to denote the ruler of the Kambojas implies that the king of Kamboja was a titular head (''king consul'') only. One king of Kamboja was

King Srindra Varmana Kamboj Srindra Varmana according to the ''Skanda Purana'' was a king of the Kamboja kingdom Kamboja ( sa, कम्बोज) was a kingdom of Iron Age India that spanned parts of South and Central Asia, frequently mentioned in Sanskrit and Pali l ...

The Aśvakas

The Kambojas were famous in ancient times for their excellent breed of horses and as remarkable horsemen located in the ''Uttarapatha'' or north-west. They were constituted into military ''

sanghas Sankhvast ( fa, سنخواست, also Romanized as Sankhvāst; also known as Sanghas, Sangkhuast, Sankhāş, and Sankhāst) is a city and capital of Jolgeh Sankhvast District, in Jajrom County, North Khorasan Province, Iran Iran, off ...

'' and corporations to manage their political and military affairs.Hindu Polity, 1978, pp 121, 140, K. P. Jayswal. The Kamboja cavalry offered their military services to other nations as well. There are numerous references to Kamboja having been requisitioned as cavalry troopers in ancient wars by outside nations. It was on account of their supreme position in horse (''Ashva'') culture that the ancient Kambojas were also popularly known as '' Ashvakas'', i.e. horsemen. Their clans in the Kunar and

Swat In the United States, a SWAT team (special weapons and tactics, originally special weapons assault team) is a police tactical unit that uses specialized or military equipment and tactics. Although they were first created in the 1960s to ...

valleys have been referred to as ''Assakenoi'' and ''Aspasioi'' in classical writings, and ''Ashvakayanas'' and ''Ashvayanas'' in Pāṇini's ''Ashtadhyayi''.

Conflict with Alexander

The Kambojas entered into conflict with Alexander the Great as he invaded Central Asia. The Macedonian conqueror made short shrift of the arrangements of

Darius Darius may refer to: Persian royalty ;Kings of the Achaemenid Empire * Darius I (the Great, 550 to 487 BC) * Darius II (423 to 404 BC) * Darius III (Codomannus, 380 to 330 BC) ;Crown princes * Darius (son of Xerxes I), crown prince of Persia, ma ...

and after over-running the Achaemenid Empire he dashed into today's eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan. There he encountered resistance from the Kamboja ''Aspasioi'' and ''Assakenoi'' tribes. The Ashvayans (Aspasioi) were also good cattle breeders and agriculturists. This is clear from the large number of bullocks that Alexander captured from them – 230,000 according to

Arrian Arrian of Nicomedia (; Greek: ''Arrianos''; la, Lucius Flavius Arrianus; ) was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher of the Roman period. ''The Anabasis of Alexander'' by Arrian is considered the best ...

– some of which were of a size and shape superior to what the

Macedonian Macedonian most often refers to someone or something from or related to Macedonia. Macedonian(s) may specifically refer to: People Modern * Macedonians (ethnic group), a nation and a South Slavic ethnic group primarily associated with North M ...

s had known, and which Alexander decided to send to Macedonia for agriculture.''History of Punjab'', 1997, Editors: Fauja Singh, L. M. Joshi

Mauryan period

The Kambojas find prominent mention as a unit in the 3rd-century BCE Edicts of Ashoka. Rock Edict XIII tells us that the Kambojas had enjoyed autonomy under the Mauryas. The republics mentioned in Rock Edict V are the Yonas, Kambojas,

s, Nabhakas and the Nabhapamkitas. They are designated as ''araja vishaya'' in Rock Edict XIII, which means that they were kingless, i.e. republican polities. In other words, the Kambojas formed a self-governing political unit under the Maurya emperors. Ashoka sent missionaries to the Kambojas to convert them to Buddhism, and recorded this fact in his Rock Edict V.

Migrations

During the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE, clans of the Kambojas from Central Asia in alliance with the Sakas, Pahlavas and the Yavanas entered present-day India, spreading into Sindhu, Saurashtra, Malwa, Rajasthan, Punjab and Surasena, and set up independent principalities in western and south-western India. Later, a branch of the same people took Gauda and Varendra territories from the

Palas A ''palas'' () is a German term for the imposing or prestigious building of a medieval ''Pfalz'' or castle that contained the great hall. Such buildings appeared during the Romanesque period (11th to 13th century) and, according to Thompson, ...

and established the

Kamboja-Pala Dynasty The Kamboja-Pala dynasty ruled parts of Bengal in the 10th to 11th centuries CE, after invading the Palas during the reign of Gopala II. The last Kamboja Kamboh ruler of the Kamboja-Pala Dynasty Dharmapala was defeated by the south Indian Empero ...

of Bengal in Eastern India. There are references to the hordes of the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, and Pahlavas in the

Bala Kanda ''Bala Kanda'' ( sa, बालकाण्ड; IAST: ', ) is the first book of the Valmiki ''Ramayana'', which is one of the two great epics of India (the other being the ''Mahabharata''). There has been debate as to whether ''Bala Kanda'' was c ...

of the Valmiki Ramayana. In these verses one may see glimpses of the struggles of the Hindus with the invading hordes from the north-west. The royal family of the

Kamuia The Mathura lion capital is an Indo-Scythian sandstone capital (a part of a pillar) from Mathura in Northern India, dated to the first decade of the 1st century CE (1–10 CE). It was consecrated under the rule of Rajuvula, one of the Northern S ...

s mentioned in the

Mathura Lion Capital The Mathura lion capital is an Indo-Scythian sandstone capital (a part of a pillar) from Mathura in Northern India, dated to the first decade of the 1st century CE (1–10 CE). It was consecrated under the rule of Rajuvula, one of the Northern Sa ...

are believed to be linked to the royal house of

Taxila Taxila or Takshashila (; sa, तक्षशिला; pi, ; , ; , ) is a city in Punjab, Pakistan. Located in the Taxila Tehsil of Rawalpindi District, it lies approximately northwest of the Islamabad–Rawalpindi metropolitan area and ...

. In the medieval era, the Kambojas are known to have seized north-west Bengal (''Gauda'' and ''Radha'') from the

of Bengal and established their own

. Indian texts like '' Markandeya Purana'', ''Vishnu Dharmottari'' ''Agni Purana'',

Eastern Kambojas

A branch of Kambojas seems to have migrated eastwards towards Nepal and Tibet in the wake of

Kushana The Kushan Empire ( grc, Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν; xbc, Κυϸανο, ; sa, कुषाण वंश; Brahmi: , '; BHS: ; xpr, 𐭊𐭅𐭔𐭍 𐭇𐭔𐭕𐭓, ; zh, 貴霜 ) was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, i ...

(1st century) or else Huna (5th century) pressure and hence their notice in the chronicles of Tibet ("Kam-po-tsa, Kam-po-ce, Kam-po-ji") and Nepal (Kambojadesa). The 5th-century '' Brahma Purana'' mentions the Kambojas around Pragjyotisha and Tamralipta. The last Kambojas ruler of the Kamboja-Pala Dynasty Dharmapala was defeated by the south Indian Emperor Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty in the 11th century.

Ethnicity and language

The ancient Kambojas were likely of Indo-Iranian origin. They are sometimes specifically described as Indo-AryansMishra 1987"Political History of Ancient India",

H. C. Raychaudhuri Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri ( bn, হেম চন্দ্র রায়চৌধুরী) (8 April 1892 – 4 May 1957Raychaudhuri, Hemchandra (1972). ''Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of ...

, B. N. Mukerjee, University of Calcutta, 1996. and sometimes as having both Indian and Iranian affinities.See: Vedic Index of names & subjects by Arthur Anthony Macdonnel, Arthur. B Keath, I.84, p 138.See more Refs: Ethnology of Ancient Bhārata, 1970, p 107, Ram Chandra Jain; The Journal of Asian Studies, 1956, p 384, Association for Asian Studies, Far Eastern Association (U.S.) The Kambojas are also described as a royal clan of the Sakas.

Rulers

Known Kamboja rulers are: *

Kamatha Kamatha is a Kamboja king mentioned in the Mahābhārata as one of the principal Kshatriyas taking part in the battle. References See also * Srindra Varmana Kamboj *Chandravarma The ''Mahabharata'' is one of the two major Sanskrit epics o ...

Chandravarma Kamboja The ''Mahabharata'' is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India; it was composed by the sage Vyasa. The most important characters of ''Mahabharata'' can be said to include: Krishna; the Pandavas Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula ...

Kamatha Kamboja Kamatha is a Kamboja king mentioned in the Mahābhārata as one of the principal Kshatriyas taking part in the battle. References See also * Srindra Varmana Kamboj *Chandravarma The ''Mahabharata'' is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ...

* Prapaksha Kamboja *

Sudakshina Kamboja Sudakshina ( sa, सुदक्षिण) was a king of the Kambojas and is featured in the Indian epic the Mahabharata. On the 14th day of battle, Arjuna, with his charioteer Krishna, attempts to reach Jayadratha. Dronacharya and Duryodhana ...

Srindra Varmana Kamboj Srindra Varmana according to the ''Skanda Purana'' was a king of the Kamboja kingdom.Studies in Skanda Purana, 1978, p 59, A. B. L. Awasthi. He is said to have installed the image of Varahadeva in his capital and made a gold throne for it.Studie ...

Kambojas' reference in the Manusmriti

The Manusmriti recognises the Kambojas as a Kashatriya tribe, but includes them in the list of other warrior tribes, generally located on the outlying regions of the Madhyadesa from northwest, north, north east and south, who in consequence of their omitting to perform the sacred ceremonies and by not serving Brahmins, are describes to have gradually become Vrishalas. Vrishala in the times of composition of Manusmriti denoted someone outside the influence of orthodox Brahmins who did not observe Brahminical rituals or requisition the services of Brahmins. In the Arthashastra the term Vrishala is used for some non-vedic heretics such as Sakya and Ajivikas..The Manusmriti in its present form is dated between 200 BCE and 200 CE,For composition between 200 BCE and 200 CE see: Avari, p. 142. For dating of composition "between the second century BCE and third century CE" see: Flood (1996), p. 56. For dating of the Manu Smriti in "final form" to the 2nd century CE, see: Keay, p. 103. For dating as completed some time between 200 BCE and 100 CE see: Hopkins, p. 74. For probable origination during the 2nd or 3rd centuries AD, see: Kulke and Rothermund, p. 85. For the text as preserved dated to around the 1st century BCE. see: "Manu-smriti". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 October 2013. the times when Kambojas, after having come under the Indo-Iranian political and cultural sway that dominated the then northwest India, had gradually drifted away from the influence of Brahmanical orthodoxy, which was by then centered around the Ganga basin. The Manusmriti predominantly discusses the code of conduct (dharma rules) for the Brahmins (priestly class) and the Kshatriyas (king, administration and warrior class).The text mentions Shudras, as well as Vaishyas, but this part is its shortest section. Sections 9.326 – 9.335 of the Manusmriti state eight rules for Vaishyas and two for Shudras. In section 10.43 - 10.44 Manu gives a list of Kshatriya tribes, who in consequence of omissions in performance of sacred rites and failure to see Brahmins, have gradually become Vrishalas. These tribes are: Pundrakas, Odras,

Dravidas The Dravidian peoples, or Dravidians, are an Ethnolinguistic group, ethnolinguistic and Outline of culture#Cultural groups, cultural group living in South Asia who predominantly speak any of the Dravidian languages. There are around 250 mi ...

, Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas, Paradas, Pahlavas, Chinas, Kiratas and Daradas.

References

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External links

Kamboj Society - Ancient Kamboja Country
{{Mahajanapada , state=collapsed Mahajanapadas Kambojas Historical Iranian peoples Kingdoms in the Mahabharata Ancient history of Afghanistan Ancient history of Pakistan