The ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (1084) is a chronicle published during the

Northern Song dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Ten Kingdoms, endin ...

(960–1127) that provides a record of Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynasties and spanning almost 1400 years. The main text is arranged into 294 scrolls (), each equivalent to a chapter—totaling around 3 million

Chinese characters Chinese characters are logographs used Written Chinese, to write the Chinese languages and others from regions historically influenced by Chinese culture. Of the four independently invented writing systems accepted by scholars, they represe ...

. In 1065,

Emperor Yingzong of Song Emperor Yingzong of Song (16 February 1032 – 25 January 1067), personal name Zhao Shu, was the fifth emperor of the Song dynasty of China. His original personal name was Zhao Zongshi but it was changed to "Zhao Shu" in 1062 by imperial decr ...

commissioned his official,

Sima Guang Sima Guang (17 November 1019 – 11 October 1086), courtesy name Junshi, was a Chinese historian, politician, and writer. He was a high-ranking Song dynasty scholar-official who authored the ''Zizhi Tongjian'', a monumental work of history. B ...

(1019–1086), to lead a project to compile a

universal history Universal history may refer to: * Universal history (genre), a literary genre **''Jami' al-tawarikh'', 14th-century work of literature and history, produced by the Mongol Ilkhanate in Persia ** Universal History (Sale et al), ''Universal History'' ...

of China, and granted him funding and the authority to appoint his own staff. His team took 19 years to complete the work and in 1084 it was presented to Emperor Yingzong's successor

Emperor Shenzong of Song Emperor Shenzong of Song (25 May 1048 – 1 April 1085), personal name Zhao Xu, was the sixth emperor of the Song dynasty of China. His original personal name was Zhao Zhongzhen but he changed it to "Zhao Xu" after he acceded to the throne. He ...

. It was well-received and has proved to be immensely influential among both scholars and the general public.

Endymion Wilkinson Endymion Porter Wilkinson (born 15 May 1941) is a British sinology, sinologist and diplomat who served as the European Union Ambassador to China and Mongolia from 1994 to 2001. He is particularly noted for ''Chinese History: A New Manual'', the ...

regards it as reference quality: "It had an enormous influence on later Chinese historical writing, either directly or through its many abbreviations, continuations, and adaptations. It remains an extraordinarily useful first reference for a quick and reliable coverage of events at a particular time", while Achilles Fang wrote " 'Zizhi Tongjian'' and its numerous re-arrangements, abridgments, and continuations, were practically the only general histories with which most of the reading public of pre-Republican China were familiar."

The text

The principal text of the ''Zizhi Tongjian'' comprises a year-by-year narrative of the

history of China The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the ...

over 294 scrolls, sweeping through many Chinese historical periods (

Warring States The Warring States period in Chinese history (221 BC) comprises the final two and a half centuries of the Zhou dynasty (256 BC), which were characterized by frequent warfare, bureaucratic and military reforms, and struggles for gre ...

, Qin, Han, Three Kingdoms, Jin and the Sixteen Kingdoms, Southern and Northern dynasties, Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties), supplemented with two sections of 30 scrolls each—'tables' () and 'critical analysis' (). Sima Guang departed from the format used in traditional Chinese dynastic histories, consisting primarily of 'annals' () of rulers and 'biographies' () of officials. Instead, Sima shifted from a 'biographical style' () to a 'chronological style' (). Guang wrote in a memorandum to the Emperor:

Since I was a child I have ranged through histories. It has appeared to me that in the annal-biography form the words are so diffuse and numerous that even an erudite scholar who reads them, again and again, cannot comprehend and sort them out. ... I have constantly wished to write a chronological history roughly in accordance with the form of the Tso-chuan (), starting with the Warring States and going down to the Five Dynasties, drawing on other books besides the Official Histories and taking in all that a ruler ought to know—matters which are related to the rise and fall of dynasties and connected with the joys and sorrows of the people, and of which the good can become a model and the evil a warning.

Initially, Sima Guang hired Liu Shu () and Zhao Junxi as his main assistants, but Zhao was soon replaced by Liu Ban (), a Han history expert. In 1070 Emperor Shenzong approved Guang's request to add Fan Zuyu (), a Tang history expert. Because the ''Zizhi Tongjian'' is a distillation from 322 disparate sources, the selection, drafting, and editing processes used in creating the work as well as potential political biases of Sima Guang, in particular, have been the subject of academic debate.

Derivative and commented works

In the 12th century,

Zhu Xi Zhu Xi ( zh, c=朱熹; ; October 18, 1130April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese philosopher, historian, politician, poet, and calligrapher of the Southern Song dynasty. As a leading figure in the development of Neo-Confuci ...

produced a reworked, condensed version of the ''Zizhi Tongjian'', known as the ''

Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu The ''Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu'' (資治通鑑綱目, "Outline and Details of the '' Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Government''"), also known as the ''Tongjian Gangmu'' or ''Gangmu'', is an 1172 Chinese history book based on Sima Guang's 1084 book '' ...

''. This version was itself later translated into

Manchu The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic peoples, Tungusic East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized Ethnic minorities in China, ethnic minority in China and the people from wh ...

as , upon the request of the Qing

Kangxi Emperor The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 165420 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, personal name Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign of 61 ...

. This Manchu version was itself translated into French by

Jesuit The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...

missionary Joseph-Anne-Marie de Moyriac de Mailla. His 12-volume translation ' (1777–1783) was published posthumously in Paris. The condensed Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu was also the main source for ', a political history of China from antiquity to 906, published in 1929 by the French Jesuit missionary Léon Wieger. The

Zhonghua Book Company Zhonghua Book Company (), formerly spelled Chunghwa or Chung-hua Shu-chü, and sometimes translated as Zhonghua Publishing House, are Chinese publishing houses that focuses on the humanities, especially classical Chinese works. Currently it ha ...

edition contains textual criticism made by

Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty ( ; zh, c=元朝, p=Yuáncháo), officially the Great Yuan (; Mongolian language, Mongolian: , , literally 'Great Yuan State'), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after Div ...

historian Hu Sanxing. The philosopher Wang Fuzhi also wrote a commentary on ''Tongjian'', titled ''Comments After Reading the Tongjian'' (). Historian

Rafe de Crespigny Richard Rafe Champion de Crespigny (born 1936), also known by his Chinese name Zhang Leifu (), is an Australian sinologist and historian. He is an adjunct professor in the College of Asia and the Pacific at the Australian National University. ...

has published annotated translations of chapters 44 to 69 in three successive works under the titles ''A Hundred Years of Han'' (2025), ''Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling'' (1989), and ''To Establish Peace'' (1996), altogether covering 57–220 AD, building upon the publication of Achilles Fang's 1952 annotated translation of the next ten chapters (70–79) covering up to 265 AD. There are also self-published translations into English of chapters 1–8, covering the years 403–207 BC and some additional sections pertaining to the

Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of Nomad, nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese historiography, Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, t ...

people.

The book consisted of 294 chapters, of which the following number describe each respective dynastic era: # 5 chapters – Zhou (1046–256 BC) # 3 chapters – Qin (221–207 BC) # 60 chapters – Han (206 BC – 220 AD) # 10 chapters – Wei (220–265) # 40 chapters – Jin (266–420) # 16 chapters –

Liu Song Song, known as Liu Song (), Former Song (前宋) or Song of (the) Southern dynasties (南朝宋) in historiography, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and the first of the four Northern and Southern dynasties#Southern dynasti ...

(420–479) # 10 chapters – Qi (479–502) # 22 chapters – Liang (502–557) # 10 chapters – Chen (557–589) # 8 chapters – Sui (589–618) # 81 chapters – Tang (618–907) # 6 chapters – Later Liang (907–923) # 8 chapters –

Later Tang Tang, known in historiography as the Later Tang, was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China and the second of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period in Chinese history. The first three of the Later Tang's four ...

(923–936) # 6 chapters – Later Jin (936–947) # 4 chapters – Later Han (947–951) # 5 chapters –

Later Zhou Zhou, known as the Later Zhou (; ) in historiography, was a short-lived Chinese imperial dynasty and the last of the Five Dynasties that controlled most of northern China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Founded by Guo Wei ...

(951–960)

Notes

Citations

Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * The first of a set of 72 volumes. *. * With annotations and translation of Yang Kuan's textual research on the Warring States.

External links

''Zizhi Tongjian'' "Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government"
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