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Zeybeks, sometimes spelled as Zeibeks ( ''Zeibekoi''; ), were irregular militia and guerrilla fighters living in West

Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...

from late 17th to early 20th centuries.

History

Origins

The origins of Zeybeks are debated with most Turkish sources supporting that they are Turkic.''Töre. Aylık Fikir ve Sanat Dergisi'', Nisan 1972, Sayı 11, pp. 13-21. According to

Aşıkpaşazade Dervish Ahmed (; "Ahmed the Dervish; 1400–1484), better known by his pen name Âşıki or his family name Aşıkpaşazade, was an Ottoman historian and a prominent representative of the early Ottoman historiography. He was a descendant (the g ...

, an Ottoman Turkish Historian from the 15th century, Zeybeks were

Muslim Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...

Gazi A ''ghazi'', or ''gazi'' (, , plural ''ġuzāt'') is an individual who participated in ''ghazw'' (, '' ''), meaning military expeditions or raids against non-Muslims. The latter term was applied in early Islamic literature to expeditions led by ...

s protecting the borders in

. According to a later Turkish author the Zeybeks first appeared in the 13th century and were Turkomans who had migrated to the

Aegean Region The Aegean region () is one of the 7 Geographical regions of Turkey, geographical regions of Turkey. The largest city in the region is İzmir. Other big cities are Manisa, Aydın, Denizli, Muğla, Afyonkarahisar and Kütahya. Located in w ...

. In today's Turkish society the Zeybeks and

Yörüks The Yörüks, also Yuruks or Yorouks (; , ''Youroúkoi''; ; , ''Juruci''), are a Turkish ethnic subgroup of Oghuz descent, some of whom are nomadic, primarily inhabiting the mountains of Anatolia, and partly in the Balkan peninsula. On the Bal ...

are seen as the same people. Many famous Zeybeks like

Yörük Ali Efe Yörük Ali Efe (1886 – 23 September 1951) was a Turkish people, Turkish guerrilla leader in the Ottoman Empire, and an officer in the Turkish Army during the Turkish War of Independence. He was an important leader in Kuva-yi Milliye of the Aeg ...

and Demirci Mehmet Efe belonged to Yörük tribes. They are also linked to the Turkmen Celali rebels in the 16th century, while a different Turkish writer claims that Zeybeks were

light infantry Light infantry refers to certain types of lightly equipped infantry throughout history. They have a more mobile or fluid function than other types of infantry, such as heavy infantry or line infantry. Historically, light infantry often fought ...

troops made of Turkmen tribes loyal to the

Seljuks The Seljuk dynasty, or Seljukids ( ; , ''Saljuqian'',) alternatively spelled as Saljuqids or Seljuk Turks, was an Oghuz Turkic, Sunni Muslim dynasty that gradually became Persianate and contributed to Turco-Persian culture. The founder of th ...

, active up to the year 1308 and rather in Central Anatolia. According to some

historians A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human species; as well as the ...

Pecheneg The Pechenegs () or Patzinaks, , Middle Turkic: , , , , , , ka, პაჭანიკი, , , ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, Pečenezi, separator=/, Печенези, also known as Pecheneg Turks were a semi-nomadic Turkic people from Central Asia who ...

culture has had a great influence on Zeybek- Seymen culture. According to Islamic sources, the clothes of the paid

soldiers under the command of Alyatte, one of the

Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...

commanders, could not be distinguished from their Zeybek-Seymen opposites, as also stated by

Claude Cahen Claude Cahen (26 February 1909 – 18 November 1991) was a 20th-century French Marxist orientalist and historian. He specialized in the studies of the Islamic Middle Ages, Muslim sources about the Crusades, and social history of the medieval Isla ...

in his article titled ''

Battle of Manzikert The Battle of Manzikert or Malazgirt was fought between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Empire on 26 August 1071 near Manzikert, Iberia (theme), Iberia (modern Malazgirt in Muş Province, Turkey). The decisive defeat of the Byzantine army ...

''. On the other hand, the Ottoman Turkish author

Osman Hamdi Bey Osman Hamdi Bey (30 December 1842 – 24 February 1910) was an Ottoman Turkish administrator, intellectual, art expert and also a prominent and pioneering painter. He was the Ottoman Empire's first modern archaeologist, and is regarded as the ...

(1842–1910) supports that they were descendants of the Trallians, a

Thracian The Thracians (; ; ) were an Indo-European speaking people who inhabited large parts of Southeast Europe in ancient history.. "The Thracians were an Indo-European people who occupied the area that today is shared between north-eastern Greece, ...

tribe from the western coast of Asia Minor, and unrelated to the Turks. However, according to other sources, mostly Greek, the Zeybeks were of

Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...

origin. According to the Greek historian Georgios Skalieris, writing in 1922, they were of

and Phrygo-

Pelasgian The name Pelasgians (, ) was used by Classical Greece, Classical Greek writers to refer either to the predecessors of the Greeks, or to all the inhabitants of Greece before the Greeks#Origins, emergence of the Greeks. In general, "Pelasgian" h ...

descent. According to a later Greek historian, Kostas B. Spanos, the Zeybeks were Greeks who migrated from

Thrace Thrace (, ; ; ; ) is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe roughly corresponding to the province of Thrace in the Roman Empire. Bounded by the Balkan Mountains to the north, the Aegean Sea to the south, and the Black Se ...

and settled in the provinces of

Bursa Bursa () is a city in northwestern Turkey and the administrative center of Bursa Province. The fourth-most populous city in Turkey and second-most populous in the Marmara Region, Bursa is one of the industrial centers of the country. Most of ...

, Aydin and

Sakarya Sakarya may refer to: Places * Sakarya (continent), a small continent 90 million years ago * Sakarya, Ardanuç, a village in Artvin Province, Turkey * Sakarya, Polatlı, a village in Ankara Province, Turkey * Sakarya gas field, in the Black Sea * ...

. They were

Islamized The spread of Islam spans almost 1,400 years. The early Muslim conquests that occurred following the death of Muhammad in 632 CE led to the creation of the caliphates, expanding over a vast geographical area; conversion to Islam was boosted ...

but not Turkified. Greek historian Thomas Korovinis, in his detailed study of the Zeybeks, summarizes seven of the main theories on their origins. These posit that the Zeybeks are the descendants of: * Turkomans and

influenced *

Trallians * a mixture of

Greeks Greeks or Hellenes (; , ) are an ethnic group and nation native to Greece, Greek Cypriots, Cyprus, Greeks in Albania, southern Albania, Greeks in Turkey#History, Anatolia, parts of Greeks in Italy, Italy and Egyptian Greeks, Egypt, and to a l ...

and

Ancient Anatolians The Anatolians were a group of Indo-European peoples who inhabited Anatolia as early as the 3rd millennium BC. Identified by their use of the now-extinct Anatolian languages, they were one of the oldest collective Indo-European ethno-linguisti ...

, such as

Phrygians The Phrygians (Greek: Φρύγες, ''Phruges'' or ''Phryges'') were an ancient Indo-European speaking people who inhabited central-western Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) in antiquity. Ancient Greek authors used "Phrygian" as an umbrella term t ...

and

Pelasgians The name Pelasgians (, ) was used by Classical Greek writers to refer either to the predecessors of the Greeks, or to all the inhabitants of Greece before the emergence of the Greeks. In general, "Pelasgian" has come to mean more broadly all ...

* Islamized

Beginnings

Traditionally, the Zeybeks acted as protectors of village people against landlords, bandits, and tax collectors. A leader of a Zeybek gang was called

Efe Agencia EFE, S.A. () is a Spanish international news agency, the major Spanish language, Spanish-language multimedia news agency and the world's fourth largest wire service after the Associated Press, Reuters, and Agence France-Presse. EFE was ...

and his soldiers were known as either Zeybeks or Kızan. The term "Efe" was used for the leaders of Zeybek groups, while the "Kızan" were beneath the Zeybeks. According to the Armenian-Turkish linguist

Sevan Nisanyan Sevan may refer to: Places Armenia * Sevan, Armenia, a town located near Lake Sevan in Armenia * Lake Sevan, the largest lake in Armenia * Sevan Island and ''Sevan Peninsula'', a former island now a peninsula in Lake Sevan * Sevan National Park ...

, the origin of the term "Efe" is either of Greek (''efevos'', 'young man with courage') or Turkic (''eğe'', ''ece'', ''ebe'', "big brother" in old Turkic) origin.

Etymology of names

The origin of the term "Zeybek" is unclear. According to Nisanyan, it is either of Turkic or Arabic origin Some sources claim that it evolved from ''sübek'', ''sü'' meaning "army, soldiers" and ''bek'' meaning "lord,

bey Bey, also spelled as Baig, Bayg, Beigh, Beig, Bek, Baeg, Begh, or Beg, is a Turkic title for a chieftain, and a royal, aristocratic title traditionally applied to people with special lineages to the leaders or rulers of variously sized areas in ...

" in old Turkic. According to Onur Akdogu, it evolved from ''saybek'', meaning "strong guardian" in old Turkic. According to

Paul Wittek Paul Wittek (11 January 1894 – 13 June 1978) was an Austrian Orientalist and historian. His 1938 thesis on the rise of the Ottoman Empire, known as the '' ghazi thesis'', argues that the driving force behind Ottoman state-building was the expa ...

it may have evolved from the name "Salpakis Mantachias" used by the Byzantine historian Pachymeres for Mentesh Bey, who founded the

Beylik of Menteşe __NOTOC__ Menteshe (, ) was the first of the Turkish Anatolian beyliks (principality), the frontier principalities established by the Oghuz Turks after the decline of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. Founded in 1260/1290, it was named for its founde ...

in southwestern Anatolia. The term ''kızan'', used for newly recruited or inexperienced Zeybeks, is of Turkic origin and means "boy". There was generally a tribe democracy within a group. Decisions were made in a democratic way and after the decision was made, the ''efe'' had an uncontroversial authority. They followed definite rituals for all actions; for example, the promotion of a ''kızan'' to ''zeybek'' was very similar to Ahi rituals.

Later development

From the 17th to 19th century, the Zeybeks evolved to outlaws and bandits terrorizing the Aegean Region. Before the

Treaty of Lausanne The Treaty of Lausanne (, ) is a peace treaty negotiated during the Lausanne Conference of 1922–1923 and signed in the Palais de Rumine in Lausanne, Switzerland, on 24 July 1923. The treaty officially resolved the conflict that had initially ...

and the establishment of the

Republic of Turkey Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...

, larger concentrations of Zeybeks could be found on the Aegean coast of western

, near the city of

İzmir İzmir is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, third most populous city in Turkey, after Istanbul and Ankara. It is on the Aegean Sea, Aegean coast of Anatolia, and is the capital of İzmir Province. In 2024, the city of İzmir had ...

(Greek: Smyrna) and in the region of Magnesia. After the

Greek landing at Smyrna The Greek landing at Smyrna (; , Occupation of İzmir) was a military operation by Greek forces starting on May 15, 1919 which involved landing troops in the city of Smyrna and surrounding areas. The Allied powers sanctioned and oversaw the p ...

they fought against the Greek occupation of western Turkey. Following the formation of a Turkish national army, during the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, most of them joined the regular forces and continued their resistance. During and after the

Turkish War of Independence , strength1 = May 1919: 35,000November 1920: 86,000Turkish General Staff, ''Türk İstiklal Harbinde Batı Cephesi'', Edition II, Part 2, Ankara 1999, p. 225August 1922: 271,000Celâl Erikan, Rıdvan Akın: ''Kurtuluş Savaşı tarih ...

they were no longer seen as bandits and outlaws, but as heroes, nationalist forces fighting against a foreign and non-muslim force. An English report about the Zeybeks and Yörüks states; "Those people hate the Greeks, and are known for their heroism."

Culture

Zeybeks have a dance called the

Zeybek dance The zeybek is a form of Turkish folk dance particular to Western, Central and southern Anatolia in Turkey. It originates from two ancient Greek dances, the Dionysiac and the Pyrrhic, and it is named after the Zeybeks. In Greece, the dance is ...

. The

Zeibekiko Zeibekiko (, ) is a Greek dances, Greek folk dance, similar to Turkish Zeybek (dance), Zeybek dance. Origin and history It takes its name from the Zeybeks, an irregular militia living in the Aegean Region of the Ottoman Empire from late 17th ...

dance in Greece is a different and special style of Greek dance. There are different Zeybek dances in Turkey. There is the "Avşar Zeybeği" (The Afshars were an Oghuz Turkic tribe.), Aydın Zeybeği, Muğla Zeybeği, Tavas Zeybeği, Kordon Zeybeği, Bergama Zeybeği, Soma Zeybeği, Ortaklar Zeybeği, Pamukçu Zeybeği, Harmandalı Zeybeği, Sakız Zeybeği, Tefenni Zeybeği, Kadıoğlu Zeybeği, Kocaarap Zeybeği (Koca = Big, Arap =

Arab Arabs (, , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world. Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of years ...

), Abdal Zeybeği (Turkmen Bektashi

dervish Dervish, Darvesh, or Darwīsh (from ) in Islam can refer broadly to members of a Sufi fraternity (''tariqah''), or more narrowly to a religious mendicant, who chose or accepted material poverty. The latter usage is found particularly in Persi ...

es were often called "

Abdal Abdāl () ''lit'': substitutes, but which can also mean "generous" 'karīm''and "noble" 'sharīf'' is a term used in Islamic metaphysics and Islamic mysticism, both Sunni and Shiite,La-Shay', Hussein and Negahban, Farzin, "Abdāl", in: ''Ency ...

", there was also an "Abdal" tribe belonging to the

White Huns The Hephthalites (), sometimes called the White Huns (also known as the White Hunas, in Iranian as the ''Spet Xyon'' and in Sanskrit and Prakrit as the ''Sveta-huna''), were a people who lived in Central Asia during the 5th to 8th centuries CE, ...

) and Bengi (Bengü meant "eternity" in old Turkic) Zeybeği.The Greek version of the dance was brought by Greeks from Izmir to Greece, which used to be called "Türkikos",GAZİM İHAL, Mahmut Ragıp, (1991), Türk Halk Oyunları Katalogu /. (Ed. Nail Tan). Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, p. 215 but this name is not used anymore. Romantic songs about their bravery are still popular in Turkish and Greek folk music. The

yatagan The yatagan, yataghan, or ataghan (from Turkish ''yatağan''), also called varsak, is a type of Ottoman knife or short sabre used from the mid-16th to late 19th century. The yatagan was extensively used in Ottoman Turkey and in areas under imm ...

sword was their primary weapon, but most of them carried firearms as well.

References

Sources

* Onur Akdogu, "Bir Başkaldırı Öyküsü Zeybekler, Cilt 1 - 3 Tarihi - Ezgileri - Dansları" ("A Story of Rebellion - Zeybeks" (3 volumes: History, Music, Dances)), İzmir, Turkey, 2004 {{in lang, tr Ottoman Army Anatolian Greeks Military units and formations of the Ottoman Empire Military history of İzmir Turkic peoples Turkish words and phrases 17th-century establishments in the Ottoman Empire 20th-century disestablishments in the Ottoman Empire