Zemplén Mountains () or Tokaj Mountains (; or Tokaji-hegység) is a mountain range in

Hungary Hungary is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning much of the Pannonian Basin, Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia and ...

. The Zemplén Mountains form part of the Tokaj-Eperjes mountain chain in Hungary, known for their ecological richness and historical significance. Geographically diverse, the region contains distinct landscape areas including peripheral

lowland Upland and lowland are conditional descriptions of a plain based on elevation above sea level. In studies of the ecology of freshwater rivers, habitats are classified as upland or lowland. Definitions Upland and lowland are portions of a ...

s and isolated higher-altitude interior zones, many of which are protected as part of the Zemplén Landscape Protection Area. The mountains support considerable

biodiversity Biodiversity is the variability of life, life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels. There is for example genetic variability, species diversity, ecosystem diversity and Phylogenetics, phylogenetic diversity. Diversity is not distribut ...

, with recent studies highlighting a significant diversity of

flora Flora (: floras or florae) is all the plant life present in a particular region or time, generally the naturally occurring (indigenous (ecology), indigenous) native plant, native plants. The corresponding term for animals is ''fauna'', and for f ...

, mammals such as wolves, lynxes, and rare bat species, as well as unique fish communities including the Carpathian barbel and Carpathian brook lamprey. Historically, the mountains hosted several medieval Pauline

monasteries A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone ( hermits). A monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which m ...

, reflecting the area's longstanding cultural importance. While traditionally dependent on

agriculture Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created ...

and

forestry Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and Natural environment, environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and ...

, the local economy now increasingly emphasises

sustainable tourism Sustainable tourism is a concept that covers the complete tourism experience, including concern for Impacts of tourism, economic, social, and environmental issues as well as attention to improving tourists' experiences and addressing the needs o ...

, leveraging both the

natural Nature is an inherent character or constitution, particularly of the ecosphere or the universe as a whole. In this general sense nature refers to the laws, elements and phenomena of the physical world, including life. Although humans are part ...

and

cultural heritage Cultural heritage is the heritage of tangible and intangible heritage assets of a group or society that is inherited from past generations. Not all heritages of past generations are "heritage"; rather, heritage is a product of selection by socie ...

of the region.

Geography

The Zemplén Mountains form part of the Tokaj-Eperjes mountain chain () and are classified as medium mountains (). Historically, the region was divided between two counties: Abaúj and Zemplén. The range consists of several distinct landscape regions, including the Abaúji-Hegyalja, which forms the western periphery of the mountains, and the more secluded, higher-elevation inner regions surrounded by mountain peaks.

Environmental significance

The inner parts of the Zemplén Mountains are considered one of Hungary's most valuable nature conservation areas, having undergone minimal transformation and preserving numerous natural values. A significant portion of the range is protected within the Zemplén Landscape Protection Area (). The landscape structure is considered exceptionally harmonious, with beautiful scenery throughout. The peripheral areas and the inhabited valleys and basins preserve numerous cultural-historical monuments, making the region deserving of the designation "historical landscape".

Biodiversity

The Zemplén Mountains support a diverse

; a 2023 survey increased the documented number of

vascular plant Vascular plants (), also called tracheophytes (, ) or collectively tracheophyta (; ), are plants that have lignin, lignified tissues (the xylem) for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant. They also have a specialized non-lignified Ti ...

species from about 1350 to over 1500. This elevated richness is fostered by the area's varied

topography Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area may refer to the landforms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps. Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary sci ...

and geology, which include acidophilous oak and

beech Beech (genus ''Fagus'') is a genus of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to subtropical (accessory forest element) and temperate (as dominant element of Mesophyte, mesophytic forests) Eurasia and North America. There are 14 accepted ...

woodlands as well as submontane meadows. Many rare or previously unrecorded species, such as '' Carex appropinquata'', '' Carex cespitosa'' and '' Tephroseris aurantiaca'', were newly identified.

Carpathian The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe and Southeast Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Urals at and the Scandinavian Mountains at ...

elements are prominent—exemplified by taxa like '' Anthriscus nitidus'', '' Lunaria rediviva'' and '' Petasites albus''—emphasising the region's close links to Northern Carpathian floras, while thermophilous species highlight its transitional position between Carpathian and Pannonian biogeographical zones. Certain once species-rich

meadow A meadow ( ) is an open habitat or field, vegetated by grasses, herbs, and other non- woody plants. Trees or shrubs may sparsely populate meadows, as long as they maintain an open character. Meadows can occur naturally under favourable con ...

s have experienced ecological degradation due to altered land use. The Zemplén Mountains also support a diverse mammalian

fauna Fauna (: faunae or faunas) is all of the animal life present in a particular region or time. The corresponding terms for plants and fungi are ''flora'' and '' funga'', respectively. Flora, fauna, funga and other forms of life are collectively ...

, with records (as of 2000) documenting 67 species, accounting for roughly 78% of Hungary's known mammalian diversity. The area's relatively undisturbed and heterogeneous habitats provide conditions suitable for various groups, including

insectivore file:Common brown robberfly with prey.jpg, A Asilidae, robber fly eating a hoverfly An insectivore is a carnivore, carnivorous animal or plant which eats insects. An alternative term is entomophage, which can also refer to the Entomophagy ...

rodent Rodents (from Latin , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the Order (biology), order Rodentia ( ), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and Mandible, lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal specie ...

s, and

ungulate Ungulates ( ) are members of the diverse clade Euungulata ("true ungulates"), which primarily consists of large mammals with Hoof, hooves. Once part of the clade "Ungulata" along with the clade Paenungulata, "Ungulata" has since been determined ...

s that commonly inhabit forests, pastures, and agricultural lands. The region harbours rare bat species, such as the Mediterranean horseshoe bat (''Rhinolophus euryale''), pond bat (''Myotis dasycneme''), greater noctule bat (''Nyctalus lasiopterus''), and Schreiber's bat (''Miniopterus schreibersii''). Large carnivores, such as the

wolf The wolf (''Canis lupus''; : wolves), also known as the grey wolf or gray wolf, is a Canis, canine native to Eurasia and North America. More than thirty subspecies of Canis lupus, subspecies of ''Canis lupus'' have been recognized, includin ...

(''Canis lupus'') and

Eurasian lynx The Eurasian lynx (''Lynx lynx'') is one of the four wikt:extant, extant species within the medium-sized wild Felidae, cat genus ''Lynx''. It is widely distributed from Northern Europe, Northern, Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe to Cent ...

(''Lynx lynx''), underline the area's ecological significance. Specific threats, including

habitat degradation Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss or habitat reduction) occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved elsewhere, or are dead, leading to a decrease ...

from

practices, loss of

grassland A grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominance (ecology), dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes such as clover, and other Herbaceo ...

poaching Poaching is the illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals, usually associated with land use rights. Poaching was once performed by impoverished peasants for subsistence purposes and to supplement meager diets. It was set against the huntin ...

, and human disturbance, pose risks to various mammals, notably water-dependent species such as the

European otter The Eurasian otter (''Lutra lutra''), also known as the European otter, Eurasian river otter, European river otter, common otter, and Old World otter, is a semiaquatic mammal native to Eurasia and the Maghreb. The most widely distributed member o ...

(''Lutra lutra'') and Eurasian water shrew (''Neomys fodiens''), as well as tree-roosting bats and larger predators. Conservation of

old-growth forest An old-growth forest or primary forest is a forest that has developed over a long period of time without disturbance. Due to this, old-growth forests exhibit unique ecological features. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Natio ...

s, grasslands, and

aquatic ecosystem An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem found in and around a body of water, in contrast to land-based terrestrial ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems contain communities of organisms—aquatic life—that are dependent on each other and on their environ ...

s remains essential for sustaining this biodiversity. The aquatic habitats of the Zemplén Mountains harbour a diverse fish community, with recent surveys documenting 13 species across multiple

watercourse A stream is a continuous body of water, body of surface water Current (stream), flowing within the stream bed, bed and bank (geography), banks of a channel (geography), channel. Depending on its location or certain characteristics, a strea ...

s. Of particular conservation importance is the Carpathian barbel (''Barbus carpathicus''), which inhabits several streams including Kemence, Gönci, Csenkő, and Tolcsva. Other alpine species such as the chub (''

Squalius cephalus ''Squalius cephalus'', the common chub, European chub or simply chub, is a species of freshwater ray-finned fish belonging to the family Leuciscidae, the daces, Eurasian minnows and related fishes. This species is found in Europe where it freq ...

''), spirlin (''

Alburnoides bipunctatus ''Alburnoides bipunctatus'', the schneider, spirlin, bleak, riffle minnow or bystranka, is a species of brackish and fresh water ray-finned fish belonging to the family Leuciscidae, which includes the daces, the minnows and related fishes. This i ...

''), and common minnow ('' Phoxinus phoxinus'') were frequently recorded. The presence of

protected species An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching, invasiv ...

, such as the rare Carpathian brook lamprey ('' Eudontomyzon danfordi''), underscores the ecological significance of these aquatic habitats. Despite this richness, the streams are severely affected by human disturbances, including pollution from domestic waste and infrastructural barriers like

weir A weir or low-head dam is a barrier across the width of a river that alters the flow characteristics of water and usually results in a change in the height of the water level. Weirs are also used to control the flow of water for outlets of l ...

s and road crossings, which impede

fish migration Fish migration is mass relocation by fish from one area or body of water to another. Many types of fish migrate on a regular basis, on time scales ranging from daily to annually or longer, and over distances ranging from a few metres to thousa ...

and threaten the long-term survival of sensitive species.

Economy and human settlement

The population of the Zemplén Mountains, both historically and currently, primarily depends on

and

. However, modern economic challenges have affected these traditional livelihoods, as fewer people can make a living from forestry, and the agricultural lands are less suitable for modern farming methods. Tourism based on the region's

and

has been identified as a potential future economic driver for the area. Development within the Zemplén Landscape Protection Area and its surroundings aims to capitalise on these landscape features to provide sustainable livelihoods for local populations.

Cultural and historical significance

The Zemplén Mountains contain the ruins of several significant medieval Pauline monasteries, which according to recent archaeological literature are collectively referred to as the Abaúj-hegyaljai monasteries. These include: * Gönc "Szent Mária" (Saint Mary) Monastery: Built between 1365–1371 on the eastern slope of Dobogó Hill at an elevation of about 335 metres. Located about 5 km from Gönc and 3.5 km from Telkibánya, with the ruins now being a popular hiking destination. * Göncruszka "Szent Katalin" (Saint Catherine) Monastery: Founded in 1338 at the western foot of Borsó Hill on the periphery of the mountains. The

monastery A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of Monasticism, monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in Cenobitic monasticism, communities or alone (hermits). A monastery generally includes a ...

ruins are no longer visible above ground, but the remains of its fish pond and dam are in relatively good condition. * Regéc "Szentháromság" (Holy Trinity) Monastery: Located in a small basin within the interior of the mountains on a gently sloping ridge following the foot of Kis-Bekecs Hill at an elevation of about 420 metres. It was about 1.5 km from Regéc village and 3 km from Regéc Castle. *Óhuta (originally Regéc) "Szent Fülöp és Jakab" (Saint Philip and James) Monastery: Founded before 1307, built on the southwestern slope of Kis-Királyos at an elevation of about 320 metres. This monastery was situated in the most secluded landscape of the four, in Hungary's only Carpathian-type valley ( Háromhutai Valley). These monasteries were built in the early-to-mid 14th century and functioned until the mid-16th century. Their locations were carefully chosen based on specific landscape characteristics including elevation (typically 320–340 metres, with Regéc being an exception at 420 metres), exposure (avoiding unfavourable northern and southern exposures), distance from settlements (typically 4–5 kilometres), and access to water sources (springs, streams, and locations suitable for fish ponds).

Tourism and heritage

The Zemplén Mountains already feature many nationally recognised tourist destinations. These include: natural hiking areas; villages preserving folk architectural traditions; economic and industrial historical monuments; historically significant castles, churches, and other architectural monuments. The Pauline monastery ruins, although currently less explored and known to the public, represent elements of medieval Hungarian history and culture. Their excavation, preservation, and incorporation into tourism routes could serve as additional points of interest while relieving pressure on more vulnerable natural areas. Three of the monasteries are located near marked tourist trails, with the exception of the Göncruszka monastery.

References

External links

Zempléni hegység
- photos and information about Zemplén Mountains (in Czech) {{DEFAULTSORT:Zemplen Mountains Mountain ranges of Hungary Mountain ranges of the Western Carpathians