The Nhangu language (Nhaŋu), also Yan-nhaŋu (''Jarnango'') is an
Australian Aboriginal language
The Indigenous languages of Australia number in the hundreds, the precise number being quite uncertain, although there is a range of estimates from a minimum of around 250 (using the technical definition of 'language' as non-mutually intellig ...
spoken by the
Yan-nhaŋu
The Yan-nhaŋu, also known as the Nango, are an indigenous Australian people of the Northern Territory
The Northern Territory (abbreviated as NT; known formally as the Northern Territory of Australia and informally as the Territory) is an s ...
people, inhabitants of the
Crocodile Islands off the coast of
Arnhem Land
Arnhem Land is a historical region of the Northern Territory of Australia. It is located in the north-eastern corner of the territory and is around from the territorial capital, Darwin, Northern Territory, Darwin. In 1623, Dutch East India Compa ...
, in the
Northern Territory
The Northern Territory (abbreviated as NT; known formally as the Northern Territory of Australia and informally as the Territory) is an states and territories of Australia, Australian internal territory in the central and central-northern regi ...
of Australia.
[James. B., Baymarrwaŋa, L., Gularrbaŋg, R., Darga, M., Nyambal, R., Nyŋunyuŋu 2, M. 2003. Yan-nhaŋu Dictionary. Milingimbi, CEC Literature Production Centre Northern Territory University press. Darwin. N.T.] The Yan-nhaŋu language belongs to the
Yolŋu Matha language group of the
Yolŋu
The Yolngu or Yolŋu ( or ) are an aggregation of Aboriginal Australian people inhabiting north-eastern Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory of Australia. ''Yolngu'' means "person" in the Yolŋu languages. The terms Murngin, Wulamba, Yalnumat ...
people of
Arnhem Land
Arnhem Land is a historical region of the Northern Territory of Australia. It is located in the north-eastern corner of the territory and is around from the territorial capital, Darwin, Northern Territory, Darwin. In 1623, Dutch East India Compa ...
in northern Australia. The varieties of the two
moieties are (a) Gorlpa and (b) Yan-nhangu.
Language revival
The Yan-nhaŋu Language Team, started in 1994 by
Laurie Baymarrwangga with encouragement from Bentley James, consists of linguists and native speakers working to compile resources for the description of Yan-nhaŋu culture and the
revitalisation of Yan-nhaŋu language.
Laurie, unable to speak English, was able to express her desire to save her language when she met Bentley on Murruŋga Island. Bentley had started work as the outstations teacher and had learnt
Djambarrpuyŋu. Having started with only 250 words, this dictionary work culminated in the 2003 ''Yan-nhaŋu Dictionary''.
This work expanded to over 4,000 forms in the ''Yan-nhaŋu Atlas and Illustrated Dictionary of the Crocodile Islands'' (2014).
[Baymarrwaŋa, L, and B, James. 2014. Yan-nhaŋu Atlas and Illustrated Dictionary of the Crocodile Islands. Tien wah press, Singapore & Sydney Australia. p 576] The work has also initiated a family of projects aimed at sustaining the linguistic, cultural and biological diversity of the Crocodile Islands. These include the Yan-nhangu Ecological Knowledge (YEK) and bilingual resources database for schools, CII Cultural mapping project, Crocodile Islands Rangers and junior rangers programs, an
ethnographic
Ethnography is a branch of anthropology and the systematic study of individual cultures. It explores cultural phenomena from the point of view of the subject of the study. Ethnography is also a type of social research that involves examining ...
description of Yan-nhangu marine identity, learner's guide, and an online dictionary project.
[Baymarrwaŋa, L, and B, James. 2014. Yan-nhaŋu Atlas and Illustrated Dictionary of the Crocodile Islands. Tien wah press, Singapore & Sydney Australia.]
Language and speakers
Yan-nhaŋu
The Yan-nhaŋu, also known as the Nango, are an indigenous Australian people of the Northern Territory
The Northern Territory (abbreviated as NT; known formally as the Northern Territory of Australia and informally as the Territory) is an s ...
is a
Yolŋu Matha (people's tongue) language belonging to the
traditional owners
Native title is the set of rights, recognised by Australian law, held by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander groups or individuals to land that derive from their maintenance of their traditional laws and customs. These Aboriginal title rig ...
of the seas and Islands of the Crocodile Group. Yan-nhaŋu is a
Pama–Nyungan language family, the largest indigenous language family in Australia.
[James, Bentley. ''Implications of Djambarrpuyngu at Murrungga''. MA Thesis Linguistics. 1999.][James, Bentley. ''Time and Tide in the Crocodile Islands: Change and Continuity in Yan-nhangu Marine Identity'', Ph.D Australian National University. 2009.][James, Bentley, Laurie Baymarrwaŋa Djarrga, M., Gularrbanga, R., Nyaŋbal, R., Nyuŋunyuŋu, M., ''Yan-nhangu Dictionary''. 1994–2003.][Bowern, Claire (in prep). ''Yan-nhaŋu Grammar''. ms, Yale University.] The majority of Yan-nhaŋu speakers reside in and around
Maningrida
Maningrida ( Ndjébanna: ''Manayingkarírra'', Kuninjku: ''Manawukan'') is an Aboriginal community in the heart of the Arnhem Land region of Australia's Northern Territory. Maningrida is east of Darwin, and north east of Jabiru. It is on ...
and
Milingimbi communities, and surrounding outstations such as Murruŋga. The Yan-nhaŋu speaking Yolŋu people are the traditional owners of the land and sea of the Castlereagh Bay area.
History and Culture
Yan-nhangu people own an area of the Arafura sea and thirty one islands of just under . Sometime after 1600 the annual arrival of Maccassan sailors harvesting trepang (bech de mer) changed the timings and patterns of Yan-nhangu people's seasonal movements around the Crocodile Islands. The arrival of the
Methodist
Methodism, also called the Methodist movement, is a Protestant Christianity, Christian Christian tradition, tradition whose origins, doctrine and practice derive from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and John's brother ...
mission to the island of Milingimbi in 1922 attracted large numbers of eastern of kin to settle permanently on the Yan-nhaŋu estate.
Before colonization, the number of Yan-nhangu people remained small, just a few hundred, with no more than fifty or so people belonging to each of the six clans (ba:purru). The Yan-nhaŋu are a Yolŋu people with a distinctly marine orientation arising from intimate coexistence with their salt water country. The sea is a crucial aspect of Yan-nhaŋu society, religion and language. The ocean’s movements, sounds and changes are considered to be physical indexes of ancestral action. People share their names with the names of the ocean, its waves, colors, spirits, and winds. The six Yan-nhaŋu language types are distinctive and may be used to distinguish Yan-nhaŋu people from their neighbors.
The Yan-nhangu language, the sites and phenomena of their seas and islands are all understood to be the bequest of the creation ancestors. Yan-nhangu estates, religious identities and languages are ancestral endowments that form linkages of connection and difference throughout the networks of Yolngu society. Yan-nhangu clan identities, estates, language and ritual resources are passed down through patrilineal descent. Yan-nhangu people continue to perform the rich ritual, musical, dance and artistic practices shared by Yolngu kin throughout north-east Arnhem Land. More so they continue through ritual and practical actions to care for their marine environments.
Varieties
Within Yan-nhaŋu there exist six clan (''bäpurru'') based varieties, three of which are Dhuwa and three of which are Yirritja. The Dhuwa varieties spoken today are those of the Gamalaŋga, Gorryindi, and Mäḻarra groups. Yirritja Yan-nhangu speakers belong to the Bindarra, Ngurruwulu and Walamangu patri-groups of the Crocodile Islands.
[James. B., Baymarrwaŋa, L., Gularrbaŋga, R., Djarga, M., Nyambal, R., Nyuŋunyuŋu No 2, M. 1994-2001. Draft Yan-nhaŋu Dictionary. Unpublished maps, grammar, ethno-linguistic notes, purpose and aims Yan-nhaŋu Dictionary Team. Author’s collection.]
Phonology and alphabet
Yan-nhaŋu phonology is typical of Yolŋu languages, Pama–Nyungan languages, and Australian languages in general. There are six
places of articulation
In articulatory phonetics, the place of articulation (also point of articulation) of a consonant is an approximate location along the vocal tract where its production occurs. It is a point where a constriction is made between an active and a pa ...
with a
stop and a
nasal
Nasal is an adjective referring to the nose, part of human or animal anatomy. It may also be shorthand for the following uses in combination:
* With reference to the human nose:
** Nasal administration, a method of pharmaceutical drug delivery
* ...
in each, as well as
laterals, glides, and a
trill
TRILL (Transparent Interconnection of Lots of Links) is a networking protocol for optimizing bandwidth and resilience in Ethernet networks, implemented by devices called TRILL switches. TRILL combines techniques from bridging and routing, and ...
. There is also a glottal phoneme and a three vowel system common in Australian languages.
Consonants
Yan-nhaŋu is written with six voiceless and six voiced stops. If a stop occurs word-initially it is written voiced, while word-final stops are written as voiceless. The two series contrast word medially, however (intervocalically and after laterals and nasals). Yan-nhaŋu does not contain any
fricatives
A fricative is a consonant produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate in t ...
, which is common for Australian languages. Lamino-dental consonants do not occur at the end of a word, but are in general more common than their alveolar counterparts. All consonants are represented in the table below.
Vowels
Yan-nhaŋu follows the typical three vowel system of Australian languages, with three short vowels, each with a long counterpart. Long vowels can only occur in the first syllable of a word. Stress is always given to the first syllable of a word, regardless of vowel length.
Grammar
The most important parts of speech in Yan-nhaŋu are
nouns
In grammar, a noun is a word that represents a concrete or abstract thing, like living creatures, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, and ideas. A noun may serve as an object or subject within a phrase, clause, or sentence.Example n ...
and
pronouns
In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun ( glossed ) is a word or a group of words that one may substitute for a noun or noun phrase.
Pronouns have traditionally been regarded as one of the parts of speech, but some modern theorists would not con ...
,
verbs
A verb is a word that generally conveys an action (''bring'', ''read'', ''walk'', ''run'', ''learn''), an occurrence (''happen'', ''become''), or a state of being (''be'', ''exist'', ''stand''). In the usual description of English, the basic fo ...
,
adjectives
An adjective (abbreviated ) is a word that describes or defines a noun or noun phrase. Its semantic role is to change information given by the noun.
Traditionally, adjectives are considered one of the main parts of speech of the English language, ...
, and
particles
In the physical sciences, a particle (or corpuscle in older texts) is a small localized object which can be described by several physical or chemical properties, such as volume, density, or mass.
They vary greatly in size or quantity, from s ...
.
Nouns and Pronouns
In Yan-nhaŋu, nominals (nouns and pronouns) often take case suffixes to denote their grammatical role in a sentence. While nouns and pronouns carry out similar functions within a sentence, they differ in how they are marked. Cases that are marked by suffixes are the
ergative,
absolutive
In grammar, the absolutive case (abbreviated ) is the case of nouns in ergative–absolutive languages that would generally be the subjects of intransitive verbs or the objects of transitive verbs in the translational equivalents of nominative� ...
,
dative
In grammar, the dative case (abbreviated , or sometimes when it is a core argument) is a grammatical case used in some languages to indicate the recipient or beneficiary of an action, as in "", Latin for "Maria gave Jacob a drink". In this exampl ...
,
allative,
locative
In grammar, the locative case ( ; abbreviated ) is a grammatical case which indicates a location. In languages using it, the locative case may perform a function which in English would be expressed with such prepositions as "in", "on", "at", and " ...
,
associative
In mathematics, the associative property is a property of some binary operations that rearranging the parentheses in an expression will not change the result. In propositional logic, associativity is a valid rule of replacement for express ...
, originative, animate oblique,
perlative
In grammar, the perlative case (abbreviated ), also known as pergressive, is a grammatical case which expresses that something moved "through", "across", or "along" the referent of the noun that is marked. The case is found in a number of Australia ...
, human
ablative
In grammar, the ablative case (pronounced ; abbreviated ) is a grammatical case for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in the grammars of various languages. It is used to indicate motion away from something, make comparisons, and serve various o ...
, proprietive,
privative
A privative, named from Latin language, Latin , is a particle (grammar), particle that negates or inverts the semantics, value of the root word, stem of the word. In Indo-European languages, many privatives are prefix (linguistics), prefixes, bu ...
, and ‘kinship proprietive’.
A more detailed description of suffixes for nouns and pronouns is given in the morphology section.
Examples of nouns
*''ratha'' 'baby', 'child'
*''moḻ 'snake'
*''wuŋgan'' 'dog'
*''waḻirr'' 'sun'
*''guya'' 'fish'
*''muru'' 'food'
Pronouns
Yan-nhaŋu pronouns exist for first, second, and third person in both singular and plural forms. In the plural form, a distinction is made between dual and plural (if there are just two people or if there are more than two people.)
Additionally, the first person plurals differentiate between inclusive (including the listener) and exclusive (the listener is not included).
Like nouns, pronouns are subject to transformation through morphological suffixes. Also, the addition of the suffix ''–pi'' or ''-bi'' to a pronoun transforms the pronoun into its emphatic form, which may be used to stress that person’s involvement in the action of the sentence, or to differentiate him or her from the sentence’s other pronouns, if they are present.
Verbs
Yan-nhaŋu verbs denote action within the sentence. Their conjugation is somewhat unusual and does not follow the standard inflections to denote temporal change. Rather, there are four major forms (primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary), each of which is used to denote tense or mood.
The primary is used to indicate the present or future tense as well as the ‘yesterday’ past, the secondary is used most often for commands or as a future/
irrealis, the tertiary is used to show past actions, and the quaternary usually serves as the habitual or irrealis. The exact delineation of the conjugation classes of Yan-nhaŋu verbs is not definite, but there exist groups of verbs that can be classified on the basis of their conjugations. See verb morphology for a detailed explanation.
Particles
Particles are an essential component of Yan-nhaŋu verb conjugation. Added to a sentence before a verb in the primary, secondary, tertiary, or quaternary form, they provide additional information about tense or mood. For example, the continuous particle ''mana'' is used very frequently in combination with the primary verb form to show a present continuous action that approximates the
present progressive
The present continuous, also called the present progressive or present imperfect, is a verb form used in modern English that combines the present tense with the continuous aspect. It is formed by the present tense form of be and the present par ...
. Other particles include:
* – with secondary, continuous imperative
* – with secondary, indicates future irrealis
* – with primary, present habitual
* - with secondary acts as future irrealis, with quaternary shows conditional irrealis
* - with primary, indicates future tense
* - with tertiary, shows past continuous
* – with secondary, indicates ‘should’
* - with tertiary, shows completion of an action
Adjectives
Yan-nhaŋu adjectives may come before or after a noun. They can but are not required to take the grammatical suffix of the noun that they modify. They may also be used as adverbs to modify verbs.
Examples of Adjectives
*''yindi'' ‘big’
*''miku'' ‘red’
*''miriŋu'' ‘bad’
*''dhunupa'' ‘straight’
*''mulkuruŋu'' ‘foreign’
*''buḻaŋgitj'' ‘good’
Example adjectival vs. adverbial sentences
Syntax
Noun Morphology
Verb
transitivity plays an important role in Yan-nhaŋu morphology. If a noun is the subject of a transitive sentence (meaning that the verb has an object) it receives the ergative suffix. The ergative suffix is also used as an
instrumental
An instrumental or instrumental song is music without any vocals, although it might include some inarticulate vocals, such as shouted backup vocals in a big band setting. Through Semantic change, semantic widening, a broader sense of the word s ...
marker to show that a noun is being used by the sentence subject to carry out the transitive action. The subject of an intransitive sentence takes no morpheme ending. Pronouns do not receive ergative suffixes and take no ending as the subject of a transitive sentence. Inanimate objects of transitive verbs do not take a suffix, while humans and many animals take the accusative ending, as do the pronouns representing them.
Morpheme suffixes are also used to mark dative nouns in Yan-nhaŋu sentences. The dative ending is also used to turn nouns into
possessives and is also attached to objects of the verb ''djäl'', ‘want’. The associative morpheme is used to show that something is ‘related to’ or ‘associated with’ a noun. The animate oblique is used only for human and animal nouns to mean ‘with’ or ‘at’ the animate noun. The locative morpheme signifies ‘at a location’ or ‘with’ or ‘on’ something, and the originative denotes that the subject of the clause is ‘from’ an object, which becomes the human ablative if the object is animate. The privative indicates ‘without,’ the allative ‘to’ or ‘towards,’ and the perlative ‘through’ or ‘along.’ A noun can be made into an adjective using the proprietive, with signifies ‘having.’ For example, ''ratha'', ‘baby’ becomes ''rathaway'', meaning ‘pregnant.’ In a similar way, adding the privative morpheme suffix, transforms a noun into an adjective showing ‘without.’ Finally, the ‘kinship proprietive’ is a noun suffix that is used to show familial relationships.
Morpheme suffix categories may have one or more
allomorphs, which are given in the table below. The choice of allomorph for a particular word is determined by the final phoneme of the noun stem.
Verb Morphology
Conjugation of Yan-nhaŋu verbs can be predicted mostly by patterns in the primary forms of the verbs. The following table is a classification scheme of Yan-nhaŋu verbs and their conjugations in the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary forms.
Adding one of the gerundial allomorphs –''nara'', -''nhara'', or –''nara'' to the end of a verb in its tertiary form transforms the verb into a noun. Conversely, nouns may be transformed into verbs by the addition of one of the allomorphs –''tjirri'', -, or –, ‘become,’ or –''kuma'', -''guma'', or –''yuma'', ‘make.’
=Examples of verb to noun transformations
=
=Examples of noun to verb transformations
=
Reduplication
Reduplication of some Yan-nhaŋu verbs can be used to express intensification or the habitual or repeated nature of the action, a common feature of indigenous Australian languages. One of more of the verbs initial syllables may be repeated in this process and phonetic transformations may occur, depending on the verb in question.
=Examples
=
Word Order
Word order in Yan-nhaŋu is relatively free, that is, there are many ways to form a grammatical sentence by varying the order of the words therein. This is due to the morphology of the language, whereby the function of a word in a sentence is denoted by its suffix and not its position. While it is not the case that any arrangement of words will create a logical sentence, the following examples show the flexibility of word order in Yan-nhaŋu.
Alternatively:
Alternatively:
''Rathanha dharrkthana moḻ’yu.''
Alternatively:
''Gulkuruŋu wurrpaṉ nhaŋu'',
Or:
''Wurrpaṉ gulkuruŋu nhaŋu''.
See also
*
Yolŋu
The Yolngu or Yolŋu ( or ) are an aggregation of Aboriginal Australian people inhabiting north-eastern Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory of Australia. ''Yolngu'' means "person" in the Yolŋu languages. The terms Murngin, Wulamba, Yalnumat ...
*
Yolŋu Matha
*
Dual (grammatical number)
Dual ( abbreviated ) is a grammatical number that some languages use in addition to singular and plural. When a noun or pronoun appears in dual form, it is interpreted as referring to precisely two of the entities (objects or persons) identifie ...
*
Transitivity (grammatical category)
Transitivity is a linguistics property that relates to whether a verb, participle, or gerund denotes a transitive object. It is closely related to valency, which considers other arguments in addition to transitive objects.
English grammar m ...
*
Australian Aboriginal kinship
Aboriginal Australian kinship comprises the systems of Aboriginal customary law governing social interaction relating to kinship in traditional Aboriginal cultures. It is an integral part of the culture of every Aboriginal group across Austr ...
Notes
References
*James, Bentley, Laurie Baymarrwaŋa Djarrga, M., Gularrbanga, R., Nyaŋbal, R., Nyuŋunyuŋu, M., Yan-nhangu Dictionary. 1994–2003.
*Baymarrwaŋa, L., Gularrbanga, R., Milinditj, L., Nyaŋbal, R., Nyuŋunyuŋu, M., Warrŋayun, A., Bowern, C. ''A Learner’s Guide to Yan-nhaŋu''. 2008, updated from 2006.
*Baymarrwaŋa, L, and B, James. 2014. Yan-nhaŋu Atlas and Illustrated Dictionary of the Crocodile Islands. Tien wah press, Singapore & Sydney Australia.
External links
* ELAR archive o
Nhangu language documentation materials{{Pama–Nyungan languages, Other
Yolŋu languages
Endangered indigenous Australian languages in the Northern Territory
Indigenous Australian languages in the Northern Territory