Ximenia Americana
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''Ximenia americana'', commonly known as tallow wood, hog plum, yellow plum, sea lemon, or pi'ut ( Chamorro), is bush-forming shrub/small tree; a species from the ''
Ximenia ''Ximenia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Olacaceae. The generic name honors Francisco Ximénez, a Spanish priest.Genaust, Helmut (1976). ''Etymologisches Wörterbuch der botanischen Pflanzennamen'' Selected species * '' Ximen ...
'' genus in the
Olacaceae Olacaceae is a family of flowering plants in the order Santalales. They are woody plants, native throughout the tropical regions of the world. , the circumscription of the family varies; some sources maintain a broad family, others split it int ...
family. It is mainly found in the
tropics The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the equator, where the sun may shine directly overhead. This contrasts with the temperate or polar regions of Earth, where the Sun can never be directly overhead. This is because of Earth's ax ...
, ranging from
Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent after Asia. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% of Earth's land area and 6% of its total surfac ...
, India and
southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...
, to
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...
,
New Zealand New Zealand () is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and List of islands of New Zealand, over 600 smaller islands. It is the List of isla ...
, Pacific Islands, West Indies, Central, North and South
America The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
. It is especially common in Africa and South America. It is not domesticated so it is only found occurring in the wild. They grow in areas with more than 500 mm of mean annual rainfall and up to heights of 2000 m. It is commonly found in a variety of diverse habitats ranging from dry
woodland A woodland () is, in the broad sense, land covered with woody plants (trees and shrubs), or in a narrow sense, synonymous with wood (or in the U.S., the '' plurale tantum'' woods), a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunli ...
s,
hill A hill is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain. It often has a distinct summit, and is usually applied to peaks which are above elevation compared to the relative landmass, though not as prominent as Mountain, mountains. Hills ...
y areas to coastal
bushland In Australia, bushland is a blanket term for land which supports remnant natural area, remnant vegetation or land which is disturbed but still retains a predominance of the original floristics and structure. Human survival in bushland has a wh ...
s, along riverbanks, and mangroves They are commonly found in poor and dry soil types. The plant has not been domesticated; as such, it only occurs in the wild.


Description


Tree

''Ximenia americana'' is a semiscandent plant that grows as a bush-forming
shrub A shrub or bush is a small to medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees by their multiple ...
or small tree to between a height of , although plants being less than 4m (13 feet) are more commonly observed. The trunk has a diameter of less than 10 cm (4 in); the bark has a colour of dark brown to pale gray. The branches form an arch downwards and the branchlets have straight, thin spines that are 1 cm long, protruding out of it, and are coloured purple-red with a waxy bloom.


Leaves

Leaves are simple, alternate or clustered on spur shoots, having a lanceolate (spear-like) to elliptic (oval) shape, are either obtuse, emarginate or retuse at the apex, and have a texture similar to leather. The leaves grow up to 2.5 to 8 cm (1 to 3 in) long and 1 to 4 cm (0.4 to 1.6 in) wide, have a thickness ranging from thin to semisucculent and have 3 to 7 pairs of lateral veins that are difficult to observe on both sides of the leaf. They curve upwards along the
midrib A primary vein, also known as the midrib, is the main vascular structure running through the center of a leaf. The primary vein is crucial for the leaf’s efficiency in photosynthesis and overall health, as it ensures the proper flow of material ...
. Leaves are hairy as they first start growing, but become smooth and shiny as they mature. The petioles are short and thin, growing up to 3 to 6 mm (0.1 to 0.3 in) long. They are canaliculated, smooth and have a grey-green or bright green colour and flesh that is either leathery or thin. They release a strong smell like almonds when crushed.


Flowers and fruit

Flowering is commonly observed during dry seasons. The flowers are fragrant, small, coloured white, yellow-green or pink and are about 5 to 10 mm (0.2 to 0.4 in) long. They grow on branched
inflorescence In botany, an inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a plant's Plant stem, stem that is composed of a main branch or a system of branches. An inflorescence is categorized on the basis of the arrangement of flowers on a mai ...
s, which are either pedunculate racemose or umbelliform cymes, that are on pedicles 3-7mm long. Fruits are shaped globose, subglobose, drupaceous or ellipisoid, grow up to 3 cm long, have a diameter of 2.5 cm and are smooth. The trees produce fruit after about 3 years of growing. Young fruits are green but turn golden-yellow or yellow (and rarely orangish-red) as they ripen, climatic conditions do not affect their maturation. When ripe, the fruit has a green, juicy pulp, and one large endospermic seed, that has a small embryo and thin testa. The seed is woody and coloured light-yellow and grows up to 1.5 cm long with a diameter of 1.2 cm, and has about 60% oil content. The fruit is "refreshing" when eaten and is said to have "an almond-acid taste". The seeds are then dispersed by animals that eat the fruit. ''Ximenia americana'' is similar to the plant ''
Ximenia afra ''Ximenia afra'', the sourplum, is a small tree or small shrub that is thinly branched. It is part of the Olacaceae family which is native throughout tropical regions. In particular, the sourplum is native to regions in South East Africa, mainly ...
'', another species in the ''Ximenia'' genus. However, ''X. americana's'' leaves and fruits are smaller than ''X. afras making it easy to distinguish between the two. ''X. americana'' also bears several flowers on inflorescences that are branched whereas the flowers in ''X. afra'' are borne in tufts or singularly, marking another difference between both of these species.


Phytochemistry

Fatty acid In chemistry, in particular in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with an aliphatic chain, which is either saturated and unsaturated compounds#Organic chemistry, saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have an ...
s and
glyceride Glycerides, also known as acylglycerols, are esters formed from glycerol and fatty acids, and are generally very hydrophobic. Glycerol has three hydroxyl functional groups, which can be esterified with one, two, or three fatty acids to form mo ...
s are abundantly available in ''X.americana''. Further classes of chemical compounds found in ''X. americana'' includes
alkaloid Alkaloids are a broad class of natural product, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure may also be termed alkaloids. Alkaloids are produced by a large varie ...
s,
anthraquinones ''For the parent molecule 9,10-anthraquinone, see anthraquinone'' Anthraquinones (also known as anthraquinonoids) are a class of naturally occurring phenolic compounds based on the 9,10-anthraquinone skeleton. They are widely used industrially a ...
,
glycoside In chemistry, a glycoside is a molecule in which a sugar is bound to another functional group via a glycosidic bond. Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. ...
s,
flavonoid Flavonoids (or bioflavonoids; from the Latin word ''flavus'', meaning yellow, their color in nature) are a class of polyphenolic secondary metabolites found in plants, and thus commonly consumed in the diets of humans. Chemically, flavonoids ...
s,
glycoside In chemistry, a glycoside is a molecule in which a sugar is bound to another functional group via a glycosidic bond. Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. ...
s,
phenolic compounds In organic chemistry, phenols, sometimes called phenolics, are a class of chemical compounds consisting of one or more hydroxyl groups (− O H) bonded directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. The simplest is phenol, . Phenolic compounds are c ...
, phlobatannins,
quinone The quinones are a class of organic compounds that are formally "derived from aromatic compounds benzene.html" ;"title="uch as benzene">uch as benzene or naphthalene] by conversion of an even number of –CH= groups into –C(=O)– groups with ...
s,
saponin Saponins (Latin ''sapon'', 'soap' + ''-in'', 'one of') are bitter-tasting, usually toxic plant-derived secondary metabolites. They are organic chemicals that become foamy when agitated in water and have high molecular weight. They are present ...
s,
tannin Tannins (or tannoids) are a class of astringent, polyphenolic biomolecules that bind to and Precipitation (chemistry), precipitate proteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids. The term ''tannin'' is widel ...
s, and
terpenoid The terpenoids, also known as isoprenoids, are a class of naturally occurring organic compound, organic chemicals derived from the 5-carbon compound isoprene and its derivatives called terpenes, diterpenes, etc. While sometimes used interchangeabl ...
s. Leaves collected from ''X. americana'' in southern Niger were found to be rich in calcium, iron, magnesium, and manganese content but were also noted to be lacking protein. Linolenate was also detected in the leaves, along with high levels of palmitate.
Vitamin C Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits, berries and vegetables. It is also a generic prescription medication and in some countries is sold as a non-prescription di ...
content varies according to maturity of the plant, with the green fruits having 74% more than the mature, yellow fruits. The seed of the fruit contains cyanide derivatives and high levels of riproximin were noted in the fruit kernels. The seed oil was observed to contain the compounds ximenic, linolenic,
linoleic Linoleic acid (LA) is an organic compound with the formula . Both alkene groups () are ''cis''. It is a fatty acid sometimes denoted 18:2 (n−6) or 18:2 ''cis''-9,12. A linoleate is a salt or ester of this acid. Linoleic acid is a polyunsatu ...
, and
stearic Stearic acid ( , ) is a saturated fatty acid with an 18-carbon chain. The IUPAC name is octadecanoic acid. It is a soft waxy solid with the formula . The triglyceride derived from three molecules of stearic acid is called stearin. Stearic acid i ...
acids along with smaller amounts of lumequic, ximenynic, arachidonic, erucic, and nervonic acids and a variety of other compounds. The volatile oil of the leaves were observed to be consisted of
benzaldehyde Benzaldehyde (C6H5CHO) is an organic compound consisting of a benzene ring with a formyl substituent. It is among the simplest aromatic aldehydes and one of the most industrially useful. It is a colorless liquid with a characteristic almond-li ...
(63.5%), hydroxybenzyl
cyanide In chemistry, cyanide () is an inorganic chemical compound that contains a functional group. This group, known as the cyano group, consists of a carbon atom triple-bonded to a nitrogen atom. Ionic cyanides contain the cyanide anion . This a ...
(13%) and
isophorone Isophorone is an Alpha-beta Unsaturated carbonyl compounds, α,β-unsaturated cyclic ketone. It is a colorless liquid with a characteristic peppermint-like odor, although commercial samples can appear yellowish. Used as a solvent and as a precu ...
(3.5%), the cyanide content contributes to the aforementioned almond-like smell of leaves.


Taxonomy

Jean Baptiste Christophore Fusée Aublet published occurrences of ''Heymassoli inermis'' and ''Heymassoli spinosa'' in Histoire des Plantes de la Guiane Françoise in 1775, which were then later identified as ''X. americana''. The latter, ''Heymassoli spinosa'', became the
basionym In the scientific name of organisms, basionym or basyonym means the original name on which a new name is based; the author citation of the new name should include the authors of the basionym in parentheses. The term "basionym" is used in both botan ...
for ''Ximenia spinosa'' which was published in A Botanical nomenclator : containing a systematical arrangement of the classes, orders, genera, and species of plants as described in the new edition of Linnæsus's Systema naturæ, by Dr. Gmelin by William Jr. Forsyth in 1794. ''Ximenia americana'' belongs to the ''Ximenia'' genus, along with 7 other species, that all belong to the Olacaceae family. The term ''Ximenia'' comes from the Spanish priest, Francisco Ximenez, who detailed a collection of plants found in Mexico in the 17th century. The species name, Americana, meaning "of America", is an indication of where the plant had been 'first' collected. Common names of the plant include "seaside plum", "small sourplum", "wild plum", "blue sour plum", "hog plum", "sour plum", "false sandalwood", "tallow nut", "tallow wood", "wild olivein", and "wild lime" in English. "chabbuli" and "ysada" in west Africa, "ghène", "n'ghani" and "léaman" in Ivory Coast and "kleinsuurpruim", "inkoy", "mutente", "kol", "mulebe", "mungomba", "musongwasongwa", "mulutulwa", "museka", "ntogé", "nogbé", "séno", "séné", "madarud", and "madarau", in other regions in Africa. "ameixa-da-terra", "ameixa", "ameixeira-do-Brasil", ameixa-brava", "ameixa-da-Baía", "ameixa-de-espinho", "ameixa-do-Pará", "ameixeira-do-Pará", and "muirapuama" in Brazil, "hicaco", "espino de brujo", "ciruelillo", "caimito de monte", "cagalero", "albaricoque", "albaria", "tigrito", and "almendro de costa" in Spanish and "citron de mer", "cerise de mer", "croc", "macaby", and "prunier de mer" in French.


Distribution and habitat

It is found in many habitats, predominantly in semi-arid bushlands and in dry and moist woodlands, sandy open woodlands, dry hilly areas, coastal bushlands, countrysides, shrub savannahs, forest lands and along watercourses such as riverbanks and stony slopes. ''X. americana'' occurs in altitudes up to 2000 m (6562 ft) and where mean annual rainfall is more than 500 mm. It grows on many soil types such as clay soils, clay muddy, silt sandy; however, it is mostly observed growing on poor and dry soil. It can also absorb nutrients and water from other plant species through its roots, however, it does not use this method as its mode of survival.


Ecology

''Ximenia americana'' is a long-lived
perennial In horticulture, the term perennial ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the year") is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. It has thus been defined as a plant that lives more than 2 years. The term is also ...
and is found present in
savanna A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland-grassland (i.e. grassy woodland) biome and ecosystem characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach th ...
hs, one of their natural habitats, and are vital food sources for animals living in the same habitats, namely mammals like giraffes, who depend on the leaves of ''X. americana'' for its food. The leaves are also eaten by insects, such as butterflies, and their larvae, documented species being '' Axiocerses amanga'' (the bush scarlet), ''
Stugeta bowkeri ''Stugeta bowkeri'', the Bowker's sapphire, Bowker's marbled sapphire or Bowker's tailed blue, is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is found in most of southern Africa. The wingspan is 26–32 mm for males and 29–41 mm for fe ...
'' (the Bowker's sapphire) and '' Hypolycaena philippus'' (the purple-brown hairstreak). The vibrant colours of the fruit, which is oftentimes produced in large amounts during the early summer, attracts birds, such as
bulbul The bulbuls are members of a family, Pycnonotidae, of medium-sized passerine songbirds, which also includes greenbuls, brownbuls, leafloves, and bristlebills. The family is distributed across most of Africa and into the Middle East, tropic ...
s,
starling Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine (perching) birds known for the often dark, glossy iridescent sheen of their plumage; their complex vocalizations including mimicking; and their distinctive, often elaborate swarming behavior, know ...
s, and barbets, and other wildlife to feed on the fruit. The flowers are known attract many insect pollinators, namely bees. Documented bees include '' Agapostemon splendens'' (the brown-winged striped-sweat bee), ''Apis mellifera'' (the western honey bee), ''
Augochloropsis sumptuosa ''Augochloropsis sumptuosa'' is a species of sweat bee in the family Halictidae Halictidae is the second-largest family of bees (clade Anthophila) with nearly 4,500 species. They are commonly called sweat bees (especially the smaller species), ...
'', ''Coelioxys germana'', ''Dialictus placidensis'', '' Megachile mendica'' (the Flat-tailed Leaf-cutter Bee) and ''
Melissodes communis ''Melissodes communis'', the common long-horned bee, is a species of long-horned bee in the family Apidae Apidae is the largest family within the superfamily Apoidea, containing at least 5700 species of bees. The family includes some of the m ...
'' (the common long-horned bee). ''Ximenia americana'' can be classified as a facultative hemiparasite, due to its tendency to live off the roots of other nearby host species, but not as a way of survival as it can perfectly grow without a host. Due to this it can grow better in soil where it can come into contact with the roots of other plants. It can also attach to objects such as plastic or rocks.


Conservation

The IUCN red-list declared ''Ximenia americana'' as a "Least Concern" plant. This is mainly due to the wide distribution and large population of ''X. americana'' all over the world. No major threats have been identified to the species currently and in the future. This assessment was carried out by the IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group and the Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) in 2018. However, researchers in Ethiopia have noticed the plant becoming rare in their respective study areas, mainly due to the overuse of the plant and its components. They have suggested the rehabilitation of the plants, mainly by domestication, in hopes of conserving the species in those specific areas.


Cultivation

There have been no recorded cases of the domestication of ''X. americana''. However, it is noted that ''Ximenia americana'' can easily propagated by planting fresh seeds in a mixture of 5 parts soil and 1 part compost. Germination is usually observed 14 to 30 days after the seed has been planted. The plant grows about 0.5 m (1.6 ft) every year, a moderate growth rate. It can grow on loamy, clay soil, and other types of poor and dry soil and is adaptable to changes in soil pH. It is drought-resistant, making it a good source of food during dry periods. It is also tolerant of mild flooding, that occur during storms or floods, for short periods of time. It is also mildly tolerant of salty soil types and salt sprays and winds. Due to the semiparasitic roots, it grows well around other plants and is best grown next a host like oak.


Toxicity

Leaves at 100 ppm were noted to be fatal for the freshwater snail, ''Bulinus globus'', the species responsible for causing the disease
schistosomiasis Schistosomiasis, also known as snail fever, bilharzia, and Katayama fever is a neglected tropical helminthiasis, disease caused by parasitism, parasitic Schistosoma, flatworms called schistosomes. It affects both humans and animals. It affects ...
. Researchers noted that ''X. americana'' extract had no deaths when the toxic effects of the extract of the plant for 14 days, however, after an oral administration of 2000 mg.kg−1, forced breathing and analgesia in the animals were noted. Another study was conducted on the effects of the liquid extracts of the root, stem and leaves of ''X. americana'' on the blood and the liver, and damage to the cells of the liver were noted.


Uses


Food

''Ximenia americana'' can be utilized as a food source, mainly its fruit, which can be eaten raw or pickled, and can be used to replace lemon in fish recipes, make juice, jams or intoxicating drinks; In South Africa, a kind of beer is made from the fruits. The kernel of the fruit can be made into oil, which is used in cooking as a substitute for butter or ghee. The nuts have a strong purgative effect, and should not be eaten in large amounts. In
Asia Asia ( , ) is the largest continent in the world by both land area and population. It covers an area of more than 44 million square kilometres, about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8% of Earth's total surface area. The continent, which ...
, the young leaves are cooked as a vegetable. However, the leaves also contain
cyanide In chemistry, cyanide () is an inorganic chemical compound that contains a functional group. This group, known as the cyano group, consists of a carbon atom triple-bonded to a nitrogen atom. Ionic cyanides contain the cyanide anion . This a ...
and need to be thoroughly cooked, and should not be eaten in large amounts.


Cosmetics

The seed of ''X. americana''s fruit can be crushed to produce oil. This oil (ximenyinc acid) is then for a variety of cosmetic purposes such as emollients, conditioners, skin softeners, body and hair oils, as well as ingredients in soaps, lipsticks and lubricants. Essential oils can also be obtained from the heartwood and flowers from ''X. americana'', which are then used for fumigations and as a substitute for orange blossom respectively.


Fuel

The wood is used as firewood and charcoal. ''X. americana''s seed oil can be used as a potential biofuel when blended with kerosene.


Traditional medicine

Methods of using ''X. americana'' in traditional medicine include
infusion Infusion is the process of extracting chemical compounds or flavors from plant material in a solvent such as water, oil or alcohol, by allowing the material to remain suspended in the solvent over time (a process often called steeping). An inf ...
,
decoction Decoction is a method of extraction by boiling herbal or plant material (which may include stems, roots, bark and rhizomes) to dissolve the chemicals of the material. It is the most common preparation method in various herbal medicine systems. D ...
, syrup, cataplasm, or as a
tincture A tincture is typically an extract of plant or animal material dissolved in ethanol (ethyl alcohol). Solvent concentrations of 25–60% are common, but may run as high as 90%.Groot Handboek Geneeskrachtige Planten by Geert Verhelst In chemistr ...
.


Crude extract

Xymelys 45 containing ''X. americana'' bark
extract An extract (essence) is a substance made by extracting a part of a raw material, often by using a solvent such as ethanol, oil or water. Extracts may be sold as tinctures or absolutes or dried and powdered. The aromatic principles of ma ...
is marketed as a cosmetic, and the seed oil is marketed for dry skin conditions.


Horticulture

The species is also used as a border and boundary, if it is cultivated as a hedge plant properly. The plant can also be used for decoration purposes as it has attractive flowers and foliage.


References


External links

{{Taxonbar, from=Q2671165 Olacaceae Trees of Africa Flora of tropical Asia Flora of the Pacific Flora of the Afrotropical realm Flora of the Indomalayan realm Flora of the Oceanian realm Flora of Queensland Flora of the Coral Sea Islands Territory Plants described in 1753 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Bushfood Fruits originating in Africa Medicinal plants Pantropical flora