Chinese shamanism, alternatively called Wuism (; alternatively ''wū xí zōngjiào''), refers to the
shamanic religious tradition of
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
. Its features are especially connected to the ancient Neolithic cultures such as the
Hongshan culture. Chinese shamanic traditions are intrinsic to
Chinese folk religion
Chinese folk religion comprises a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. This includes the veneration of ''Shen (Chinese folk religion), shen'' ('spirits') and Chinese ancestor worship, ances ...
.
Various ritual traditions are rooted in original Chinese shamanism: contemporary
Chinese ritual masters are sometimes identified as ''wu'' by outsiders, though most orders don't self-identify as such. Also
Taoism
Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
has some of its origins from Chinese shamanism: it developed around the pursuit of long life (''shou'' /), or the status of a ''
xian'' (, "mountain man", "holy man").
Meaning of ''wu''
The
Chinese word ''wu'' "shaman, wizard", indicating a person who can mediate with the powers generating things (the
etymological meaning of "spirit", "god", or ''nomen agentis'', ''virtus'', ''energeia''), was first recorded during the
Shang dynasty
The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty that ruled in the Yellow River valley during the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Western Zhou d ...
(ca. 1600-1046 BCE), when a ''wu'' could be either sex. During the late
Zhou dynasty
The Zhou dynasty ( ) was a royal dynasty of China that existed for 789 years from until 256 BC, the longest span of any dynasty in Chinese history. During the Western Zhou period (771 BC), the royal house, surnamed Ji, had military ...
(1045-256 BCE) ''wu'' was used to specify
"female shaman; sorceress" as opposed to ''xi'' "male shaman; sorcerer" (which first appears in the 4th century BCE
''Guoyu''). Other sex-differentiated shaman names include ''nanwu'' for "male shaman; sorcerer; wizard"; and ''nüwu'' , ''wunü'' , ''wupo'' , and ''wuyu'' for "female shaman; sorceress; witch".
The word ''
tongji'' (lit. "youth diviner") "shaman; spirit-medium" is a near-synonym of ''wu''. Modern Chinese distinguishes native ''wu'' from "
Siberian shaman": ''saman'' or ''saman'' ; and from Indian ''
Shramana'' "wandering monk; ascetic": ''shamen'' , ''sangmen'' , or ''sangmen'' .
Berthold Laufer (1917:370) proposed an etymological relation between
Turkic ''bögü'' "shaman", Chinese ''bu'', ''wu'' (shaman), ''buk'', ''puk'' (to divine), and
Tibetan ''aba'' (pronounced ''ba'', sorcerer). Coblin (1986:107) puts forward a Sino-Tibetan root *' "magician; sorcerer" for Chinese ''wu'' < ''mju'' < *''mjag'' "magician; shaman" and
Written Tibetan'' 'ba'-po'' "sorcerer" and'' 'ba'-mo'' "sorcereress" (of the
Bön religion). Further connections are to the ''bu-mo'' priests of
Zhuang Shigongism and the ''bi-mo'' priests of
Bimoism, the
Yi indigenous faith. Also Korean ''mu'' (of
Muism
Korean shamanism, also known as () is a religion from Korea. Religious studies, Scholars of religion classify it as a folk religion and sometimes regard it as one facet of a broader Korean vernacular religion distinct from Buddhism, Taoism, Dao ...
) is cognate to Chinese ''wu'' . Schuessler lists some etymologies: ''wu'' could be cognate with ''wu'' "to dance"; ''wu'' could also be cognate with ''mu'' "mother" since ''wu'', as opposed to ''xi'' , were typically female; ''wu'' could be a loanword from
Iranian
Iranian () may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Iran
** Iranian diaspora, Iranians living outside Iran
** Iranian architecture, architecture of Iran and parts of the rest of West Asia
** Iranian cuisine, cooking traditions and practic ...
*''maghu'' or *''maguš'' "magi; magician", meaning an "able one; specialist in ritual".
Mair (1990) provides archaeological and linguistic evidence that Chinese ''wu'' < *''m
yag'' "shaman; witch, wizard; magician" was maybe a
loanword
A loanword (also a loan word, loan-word) is a word at least partly assimilated from one language (the donor language) into another language (the recipient or target language), through the process of borrowing. Borrowing is a metaphorical term t ...
from
Old Persian
Old Persian is one of two directly attested Old Iranian languages (the other being Avestan) and is the ancestor of Middle Persian (the language of the Sasanian Empire). Like other Old Iranian languages, it was known to its native speakers as (I ...
*''maguš'' "magician;
magi
Magi (), or magus (), is the term for priests in Zoroastrianism and earlier Iranian religions. The earliest known use of the word ''magi'' is in the trilingual inscription written by Darius the Great, known as the Behistun Inscription. Old Per ...
". Mair connects the nearly identical Chinese Bronze script for ''wu'' and Western
heraldic cross potent ☩, an ancient symbol of a ''magus'' or ''magician''
Early history
The Chinese religion from the
Shang dynasty
The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty that ruled in the Yellow River valley during the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Western Zhou d ...
onwards developed around
ancestral worship. The main gods from this period are not forces of nature in the
Sumerian way, but
deified virtuous men. The ancestors of the emperors were called ''di'' (), and the greatest of them was called ''
Shangdi'' (, "the Highest Lord"). He is identified with the
dragon
A dragon is a Magic (supernatural), magical legendary creature that appears in the folklore of multiple cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, but European dragon, dragons in Western cultures since the Hi ...
(''
Kui'' ), symbol of the
universal power (
qi).
Cosmic powers dominate nature: the
Sun, the
Moon
The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. It Orbit of the Moon, orbits around Earth at Lunar distance, an average distance of (; about 30 times Earth diameter, Earth's diameter). The Moon rotation, rotates, with a rotation period (lunar ...
, stars, winds and clouds were considered informed by divine energies. The earth god is ''She'' () or ''
Tu'' (). The Shang period had two methods to enter in contact with divine ancestors: the first is the numinous-mystical ''
wu'' () practice, involving dances and trances; and the second is the method of the
oracle bones, a rational way.
The
Zhou dynasty
The Zhou dynasty ( ) was a royal dynasty of China that existed for 789 years from until 256 BC, the longest span of any dynasty in Chinese history. During the Western Zhou period (771 BC), the royal house, surnamed Ji, had military ...
, succeeding the Shang, was more rooted in an agricultural worldview. They opposed the ancestor-gods of the Shang, and gods of nature became dominant. The
utmost power in this period was named ''
Tian'' (, "heaven"). With ''
Di'' (, "earth") he forms the whole
cosmos
The cosmos (, ; ) is an alternative name for the universe or its nature or order. Usage of the word ''cosmos'' implies viewing the universe as a complex and orderly system or entity.
The cosmos is studied in cosmologya broad discipline covering ...
in a complementary duality.
The
Chu kingdom (c. 1030 BC – 223 BC) of the
Spring and Autumn period
The Spring and Autumn period () was a period in History of China, Chinese history corresponding roughly to the first half of the Eastern Zhou (256 BCE), characterized by the gradual erosion of royal power as local lords nominally subject t ...
was particularly fond of wuist practices and rituals. This is reflected in their poetry, calligraphy, artworks and
lacquerware
Lacquerware are objects decoratively covered with lacquer. Lacquerware includes small or large containers, tableware, a variety of small objects carried by people, and larger objects such as furniture and even coffins painted with lacquer. Before ...
, which often portrayed ethereal and mythological elements that are not otherwise found in the relics of other contemporary states.
Qing period
The
Manchu
The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic peoples, Tungusic East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized Ethnic minorities in China, ethnic minority in China and the people from wh ...
rulers of the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
(1644–1912) introduced substantial elements of
Tungusic shamanism to China.
Hong Taiji (1592–1643) put shamanistic practices in the service of the state, notably by forbidding others to erect new shrines (''tangse'') for ritual purposes. In the 1620s and 1630s, the Qing ruler conducted shamanic sacrifices at the ''tangse'' of
Mukden, the Qing capital. In 1644, as soon as the Qing
seized Beijing to begin
their conquest of China, they named it their new capital and erected an official shamanic shrine there. In the
Beijing
Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...
''tangse'' and in the women's quarters of the
Forbidden City
The Forbidden City () is the Chinese Empire, imperial Chinese palace, palace complex in the center of the Imperial City, Beijing, Imperial City in Beijing, China. It was the residence of 24 Ming dynasty, Ming and Qing dynasty, Qing dynasty L ...
, Qing emperors and professional shamans (usually women) conducted shamanic ceremonies until the abdication of the dynasty in 1912.
In 1747 the
Qianlong Emperor
The Qianlong Emperor (25 September 17117 February 1799), also known by his temple name Emperor Gaozong of Qing, personal name Hongli, was the fifth Emperor of China, emperor of the Qing dynasty and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China pr ...
(r. 1735–1796) commissioned the publication of a ''Shamanic Code'' to revive and regulate shamanic practices, which he feared were becoming lost. He had it distributed to Bannermen to guide their practice, but we know very little about the effect of this policy. Mongols and Han Chinese were forbidden to attend shamanic ceremonies. Partly because of their secret aspect, these rituals attracted the curiosity of Beijing dwellers and visitors to the Qing capital. French Jesuit
Joseph-Marie Amiot published a study on the ''Shamanic Code'', "" (1773). In 1777 the Qianlong Emperor ordered the code translated into Chinese for inclusion in the ''
Complete Library of the Four Treasuries''. The Manchu version was printed in 1778, whereas the Chinese-language edition, titled ''Qinding Manzhou jishen jitian dianli'' (), was completed in 1780 or 1782. Even though this "Shamanic Code" did not fully unify shamanic practice among the Bannermen, it "helped systematize and reshape what had been a very fluid and diverse belief system".
Shamanistic Features in Early Tibetan Religion
Before
Buddhism
Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
was introduced to
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ), or Greater Tibet, is a region in the western part of East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are other ethnic groups s ...
, the
Tibetan people had long believed in a primitive religious system combining nature and ancestor worship. This system, with typical
shamanic characteristics, played an important role in the Tibetans' religious, political, and social life. In ancient Tibetans,
priests
A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in particular, ...
who held religious positions were regarded as intermediaries with divine abilities and could communicate with natural spirits. Before establishing the
Tibetan Empire
The Tibetan Empire (,) was an empire centered on the Tibetan Plateau, formed as a result of expansion under the Yarlung dynasty heralded by its 33rd king, Songtsen Gampo, in the 7th century. It expanded further under the 38th king, Trisong De ...
, this quasi-shamanic belief almost monopolized the religious space in Tibet, especially in the
plateau
In geology and physical geography, a plateau (; ; : plateaus or plateaux), also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland consisting of flat terrain that is raised sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side. ...
areas where agriculture was underdeveloped and the environment was harsh. People usually believed that disasters were punishments or warnings from heaven. Priests not only presided over folk ceremonies but also often accompanied the army in battles, performing
divination
Divination () is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic ritual or practice. Using various methods throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a should proceed by reading signs, ...
, praying to gods, and other rituals to stabilize the morale of the army.
In the period when Tibetan Empire had not yet been fully Buddhistized, the Tibetan army would hold a grand prayer ceremony before going on an expedition. During the ceremony, the priests presided over the divination to ask for good and bad luck to pray for the gods to protect the victory of the war. They conveyed the will of the gods to the soldiers through drumming and dancing to strengthen their confidence in victory. In addition to spiritual motivation, priests would perform symbolic rituals to bless
military equipment so that soldiers believed they were blessed by divine power to enhance their confidence in battle. Such rituals were recognized and respected by the Tibetan royal family and became a spiritual force that soldiers relied heavily on in their psychology and beliefs before the war.
In the 8th century AD, under the rule of the Tibetan king
Trisong Detsen, Buddhism was officially supported by the Country and gradually became the dominant religion of the Tibetan dynasty. The previously dominant religious belief system, which incorporated many shamanic features, began to be suppressed and marginalized. In particular, although
Bon
Bon or Bön (), also known as Yungdrung Bon (, ), is the indigenous Tibetan religion which shares many similarities and influences with Tibetan Buddhism.Samuel 2012, pp. 220–221. It initially developed in the tenth and eleventh centuries but ...
is not a form of classical shamanism, it retains many features associated with shamanic traditions, such as summoning spirits, ritual healing, divination, and communication with supernatural forces. As a religion that inherited the shamanic elements of early Tibetan religion, Bon was also severely impacted by the rise of Buddhism. The court no longer recognized the legitimacy of the Bon priests, resulting in many Bon rituals and believers being forced to retreat to remote areas or forced to adapt to the new Buddhist framework in order to survive.
Northeast shamanism
Shamanism is practiced in
Northeast China
Northeast China () is a geographical region of China, consisting officially of three provinces Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang. The heartland of the region is the Northeast China Plain, the largest plain in China with an area of over . The regi ...
and is considered different from those of central and southern Chinese folk religion, as it resulted from the interaction of Han religion with folk religion practices of other Tungusic people such as
Manchu shamanism. The shaman would perform various ritual functions for groups of believers and local communities, such as moon drum dance and chūmǎxiān (出馬仙 "riding for the immortals").
Modern Shamanism
Shamanism saw a decline due to
Neo-Confucianism labeling it as untutored and disorderly. During
Maoist China all religious practices disappeared from public spaces. While spirit mediums have begun reappearing (mostly in rural China) since the 1980s, they operate with a low profile, often working from their homes, relying on word of mouth to generate business, or in newly built temples under a
Taoist Association membership card to be legitimate under the law. The term shamanism and the religion itself has been critiqued by Western scholars due to an unfair and limited comparison to more favored religions such as
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
and other modern and more documented religions in Western society.
Spirit mediums are often viewed as scammers, and are frequently portrayed as such in television shows and comedies. Along with the focus on science, modern medicine, and
material culture
Material culture is culture manifested by the Artifact (archaeology), physical objects and architecture of a society. The term is primarily used in archaeology and anthropology, but is also of interest to sociology, geography and history. The fie ...
in China (which created serious doubt in spiritual practices), shamanism is viewed as an opposition to the modern focus of science and medicine in the pursuit of modernizing. The marginalization of shamanism is one of the reasons for it mostly being practiced in rural or less developed areas or in small towns, along with the lack of enforcement of anti-shamanism policies among authorities in rural areas (either because they believe in Shamanism themselves or "look the other way in concession to local beliefs"). Shamanistic practices today include controlling the weather, healing diseases modern medicine can not treat, exorcism of ghosts and demons, and seeing or divining the future.
Shamanism's decrease in popularity is not reflected in all areas. It still maintains popularity in many areas in southern China (such as in
Chaoshan) and rural northern China. Taiwan (although Taiwan tried to ban Shamanism, in the end only restricting it) still have many who openly practice without the stigma seen in parts of China.
Chinese Mediumship, which originated from Chinese Shamanism, is widely practised in
Chinese Folk Religion
Chinese folk religion comprises a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. This includes the veneration of ''Shen (Chinese folk religion), shen'' ('spirits') and Chinese ancestor worship, ances ...
in Taiwan.
Taoism Talisman and certain sorcery practice in Taoism also originated from Chinese Shamanism.
See also
*
Chinese folk religion
Chinese folk religion comprises a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. This includes the veneration of ''Shen (Chinese folk religion), shen'' ('spirits') and Chinese ancestor worship, ances ...
*
Chinese ritual mastery traditions
*
Nuo folk religion
*
Taoism
Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
References
Bibliography
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External links
* Max Dashu.
Xi Wangmu, the shamanic great goddess of China'.
{{Religion topics
Chinese folk religion
Shamanism in China