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Women have been serving in the
military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...
since the inception of organized warfare, in both combat and non-combat roles. Their inclusion in combat missions has increased in recent decades, often serving as pilots, mechanics, and infantry officers. Since 1914, women have been conscripted in greater numbers, filling a greater variety of roles in Western militaries. In the 1970s, most Western armies began allowing women to serve on active duty in all military branches. In 2006, eight countries (
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
,
Eritrea Eritrea, officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa, with its capital and largest city being Asmara. It is bordered by Ethiopia in the Eritrea–Ethiopia border, south, Sudan in the west, and Dj ...
,
Israel Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in West Asia. It Borders of Israel, shares borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the south-west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Isr ...
,
Libya Libya, officially the State of Libya, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to Egypt–Libya border, the east, Sudan to Libya–Sudan border, the southeast, Chad to Chad–L ...
,
Malaysia Malaysia is a country in Southeast Asia. Featuring the Tanjung Piai, southernmost point of continental Eurasia, it is a federation, federal constitutional monarchy consisting of States and federal territories of Malaysia, 13 states and thre ...
,
North Korea North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and borders China and Russia to the north at the Yalu River, Yalu (Amnok) an ...
,
Peru Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pac ...
, and
Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
)
conscripted Conscription, also known as the draft in the United States and Israel, is the practice in which the compulsory enlistment in a national service, mainly a military service, is enforced by law. Conscription dates back to antiquity and it contin ...
women into military service. In 2013,
Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard also form part of the Kingdom of ...
became the first
NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO ; , OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental organization, intergovernmental Transnationalism, transnational military alliance of 32 Member states of NATO, member s ...
country to draft women, as well as the first country in the world to conscript women on the same formal terms as men.
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, and Finland to the east. At , Sweden is the largest Nordic count ...
followed in 2017, as did the
Netherlands , Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...
in 2018 (although in the Netherlands there is no active peacetime conscription).
Denmark Denmark is a Nordic countries, Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the metropole and most populous constituent of the Kingdom of Denmark,, . also known as the Danish Realm, a constitutionally unitary state that includes the Autonomous a ...
announced in 2024 that women will be conscripted, starting in 2026. As of 2022, only three countries conscripted women and men on the same formal conditions: Norway, Sweden, and the Netherlands. Denmark has plans to start conscripting women in 2026. A few other countries have laws allowing for the conscription of women into their armed forces, though with some differences such as service exemptions, length of service, and more.


History by war


World War I


Russia

Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...
is the only nation to deploy female combat troops in substantial numbers. Historically, female recruits either joined the military in disguise or were tacitly accepted by their units. Perhaps the most prominent was a contingent of front-line
light cavalry Light cavalry comprised lightly armed and body armor, armored cavalry troops mounted on fast horses, as opposed to heavy cavalry, where the mounted riders (and sometimes the warhorses) were heavily armored. The purpose of light cavalry was p ...
in a
Cossack The Cossacks are a predominantly East Slavic Eastern Christian people originating in the Pontic–Caspian steppe of eastern Ukraine and southern Russia. Cossacks played an important role in defending the southern borders of Ukraine and Rus ...
regiment commanded from 1915 to 1917 by a female colonel,
Alexandra Kudasheva Polkovnik Alexandra Kudasheva (c. 1873–1921?) was a Russian sportswoman and female soldier, notable both for her endurance riding feats, and for commanding of one of the first fully integrated combat units during World War I. Biography Kudashe ...
(1873–1921?). This cavalry regiment fought in
WWI World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting took place mainly in Europe and th ...
and also during the
Russian Revolution The Russian Revolution was a period of Political revolution (Trotskyism), political and social revolution, social change in Russian Empire, Russia, starting in 1917. This period saw Russia Dissolution of the Russian Empire, abolish its mona ...
and may have been the first gender-integrated regiment in Russian history. She was also noted for her
endurance riding Endurance riding is an equestrian sport based on controlled long-distance races. It is one of the international competitions recognized by the FEI. There are endurance rides worldwide. Endurance rides can be any distance, though they are rar ...
feats. Others included
Maria Bochkareva María Leontievna Bochkareva (July 1889 – 16 May 1920; , née ''Frolkova'' (Фролко́ва), nicknamed ''Yashka'') was a Russian soldier who fought in World War I and formed the Women's Battalion. She was the first Russian woman to comman ...
, who was decorated three times and promoted to senior NCO rank, while ''
The New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''NYT'') is an American daily newspaper based in New York City. ''The New York Times'' covers domestic, national, and international news, and publishes opinion pieces, investigative reports, and reviews. As one of ...
'' reported that a group of twelve schoolgirls from Moscow had enlisted together disguised as young men. In 1917, the
Provisional Government A provisional government, also called an interim government, an emergency government, a transitional government or provisional leadership, is a temporary government formed to manage a period of transition, often following state collapse, revoluti ...
raised a number of "
Women's Battalion Women's Battalions (Russia) were all-female combat units formed after the February Revolution by the Russian Provisional Government, in a last-ditch effort to inspire the mass of war-weary soldiers to continue fighting in World War I. In the spr ...
s", with Maria Bochkareva given an officer's commission in command. They were disbanded before the end of the year. In the later
Russian Civil War The Russian Civil War () was a multi-party civil war in the former Russian Empire sparked by the 1917 overthrowing of the Russian Provisional Government in the October Revolution, as many factions vied to determine Russia's political future. I ...
, they fought both for the
Bolsheviks The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, were a radical Faction (political), faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, ...
(infantry) and the White Guard. Natalie Tychmini was a Russian woman who disguised herself as a man in order to fight. She received the Cross of St. George for fighting the
Austrians Austrians (, ) are the citizens and Nationality, nationals of Austria. The English term ''Austrians'' was applied to the population of Archduchy of Austria, Habsburg Austria from the 17th or 18th century. Subsequently, during the 19th century, ...
in
Opatów Opatów (; ) is a town in southeastern Poland, within Opatów County in the Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship (Holy Cross Province). Historically, it was part of a greater region called Lesser Poland. In 2012 the population was 6,658. Opatów is located ...
in 1915. Her sex was discovered when she was wounded, and she was sent back to
Kiev Kyiv, also Kiev, is the capital and most populous List of cities in Ukraine, city of Ukraine. Located in the north-central part of the country, it straddles both sides of the Dnieper, Dnieper River. As of 1 January 2022, its population was 2, ...
.


Others

In
Serbia , image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg , national_motto = , image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg , national_anthem = () , image_map = , map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...
, some women played key military roles. Scottish doctor Elsie Ingles coordinated a retreat of approximately 8,000 Serbian troops through Romania and revolutionary Russia, up to Scandinavia, and finally onto transport ships back to England.
Milunka Savić Milunka Savić CMG ( sr-cyr, Милунка Савић; 28 June 1892 – 5 October 1973) was a Serbian war heroine who fought in the Balkan Wars and in World War I. She is the most-decorated female combatant in the history of human warfare. She ...
enlisted in the Serbian army in place of her brother. She fought throughout the war, becoming one of the most decorated women in military history. In 1917,
Loretta Walsh Loretta Perfectus Walsh (April 22, 1896 – August 6, 1925) was the first American woman to officially serve in the United States Armed Forces in a non-nursing capacity. She joined the United States Naval Reserve on March 17, 1917, and subs ...
became the first woman in the United States to enlist openly as a woman. In the 1918
Finnish Civil War The Finnish Civil War was a civil war in Finland in 1918 fought for the leadership and control of the country between Whites (Finland), White Finland and the Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic (Red Finland) during the country's transition fr ...
, more than 2,000 women fought in the Women's Red Guards.


Spanish Civil War

During the
Spanish Civil War The Spanish Civil War () was a military conflict fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republican faction (Spanish Civil War), Republicans and the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalists. Republicans were loyal to the Left-wing p ...
, thousands of women fought in mixed-gender combat and rearguard units, or as part of militias.


Second Sino-Japanese War

Several women's battalions were established in China during the
Second Sino-Japanese War The Second Sino-Japanese War was fought between the Republic of China (1912–1949), Republic of China and the Empire of Japan between 1937 and 1945, following a period of war localized to Manchuria that started in 1931. It is considered part ...
. These included the
Guangxi Women's Battalion The Guangxi Women's Battalion was a women's unit formed in 1938 in Guangxi, China. It was one of several corps that were founded following an appeal by Soong Mei-ling for women to support the Sino-Japanese War effort in 1937. Similar units inclu ...
, the
Yunnan Women's Battlefield Service Unit Yunnan; is an inland Provinces of China, province in Southwestern China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 47.2 million (as of 2020). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the Chinese provinces ...
, Zhejiang Women's Guerrilla Band, Hunan War Service Corps, and others.


World War II

All the major participating nations in
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
enlisted women. The majority served in nursing and clerical or support roles. Over 500,000 women had combat roles in anti-aircraft units in Britain and Germany, as well as front-line units in the Soviet Union.


United States

During World War II, over 350,000 women served in the United States Armed Forces as members of the Army's Women's Auxiliary Army Corps (later renamed the
Women's Army Corps The Women's Army Corps (WAC; ) was the women's branch of the United States Army. It was created as an auxiliary unit, the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC), on 15 May 1942, and converted to an active duty status in the Army of the United S ...
), the Navy's
WAVES United States Naval Reserve (Women's Reserve), better known as the WAVES (for Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service), was the women's branch of the United States Naval Reserve during World War II. It was established on July 21, 1942, ...
(Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service) and the Marine Corps' Women's Reserve. Of these, 432 were killed and 88 were taken prisoner. During the war, many Japanese-American women lost their jobs because they were sent to relocation camps. Despite this, many of them volunteered to serve in the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps. These women were subject to racism as well as sexism when they joined WAAC; despite this, they made significant contributions to the war effort. Many women were hired as interpreters, translators, and interrogators in the
Military Intelligence Service The Military Intelligence Service (, ''America Rikugun Jōhōbu'') was a World War II U.S. military unit consisting of two branches, the Japanese American unit (described here) and the German-Austrian unit based at Camp Ritchie, best known as ...
.


India

In 1942, the
Indian National Army The Indian National Army (INA, sometimes Second INA; ''Azad Hind Fauj'' ; 'Free Indian Army') was a Empire of Japan, Japanese-allied and -supported armed force constituted in Southeast Asia during World War II and led by Indian Nationalism#An ...
(Azaad Hind Fauj) established
Rani of Jhansi Regiment The Rani of Jhansi Regiment was the women's regiment of the Indian National Army, the armed force formed by Indian nationalists in 1942 in Southeast Asia with the aim of overthrowing the British Raj in colonial India, with Japanese assistance. ...
, India's first all-women regiment to fight for Indian independence under the leadership of
Subash Chandra Bose Subhas Chandra Bose (23 January 1897 – 18 August 1945) was an Indian independence movement, Indian nationalist whose defiance of British raj, British authority in India made him a hero among many Indians, but his wartime alliances with ...
, with Japanese assistance. It is estimated that over 1,000 women served in the regiment.


United Kingdom

In 1938, the
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies. * British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
established uniformed services for women (small units of nurses had long been in service). In late 1941, Britain began conscripting women, sending most into factories and some into the military, especially the
Auxiliary Territorial Service The Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS; often pronounced as an acronym) was the women's branch of the British Army during the World War II, Second World War. It was formed on 9 September 1938, initially as a women's voluntary service, and existe ...
(ATS) attached to the army. The ATS began as a women's auxiliary in 1938. In 1941, the ATS was granted military status, although women received only two-thirds of male pay. Women had a well-publicized role in handling anti-aircraft guns against German planes and V-1 missiles. Prime Minister
Winston Churchill Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British statesman, military officer, and writer who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 (Winston Churchill in the Second World War, ...
's daughter was there, and he said that any general who saved him 40,000 fighting men had gained the equivalent of a victory. By August 1941, women were operating fire-control instruments; although they were never allowed to pull the trigger, since killing the enemy was considered too masculine. By 1943, 56,000 women were in
Anti-Aircraft Command Anti-Aircraft Command (AA Command, or "Ack-Ack Command") was a British Army command of the Second World War that controlled the Territorial Army anti-aircraft artillery and searchlight formations and units defending the United Kingdom. Origin ...
, mostly in units close to London where they faced a risk of death, but not of capture. The first death of a woman in Anti-Aircraft Command occurred in April 1942.


Germany

Nazi Germany Nazi Germany, officially known as the German Reich and later the Greater German Reich, was the German Reich, German state between 1933 and 1945, when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party controlled the country, transforming it into a Totalit ...
had similar roles for women. The '' SS-Helferinnen'' were regarded as part of the SS if they had undergone training at a ''Reichsschule SS''. All other female workers were contracted to the SS and chosen largely from
concentration camps A concentration camp is a prison or other facility used for the internment of political prisoners or politically targeted demographics, such as members of national or ethnic minority groups, on the grounds of national security, or for exploit ...
. Women served in auxiliary units in the navy (''Kriegshelferinnen''), air force (''Luftnachrichtenhelferinnen'') and army ( ''Nachrichtenhelferin'').Gordon Williamson, ''World War II German Women's Auxiliary Services'' (2003). In 1944-45 roughly 500,000 women were volunteer uniformed auxiliaries in the German armed forces (''
Wehrmacht The ''Wehrmacht'' (, ) were the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the German Army (1935–1945), ''Heer'' (army), the ''Kriegsmarine'' (navy) and the ''Luftwaffe'' (air force). The designation "''Wehrmac ...
''). Approximately the same number served in civil aerial defense. 400,000 volunteered as nurses and many more replaced drafted men in the wartime economy. In the
Luftwaffe The Luftwaffe () was the aerial warfare, aerial-warfare branch of the before and during World War II. German Empire, Germany's military air arms during World War I, the of the Imperial German Army, Imperial Army and the of the Imperial Ge ...
, women served in combat roles helping to operate anti-aircraft systems to shoot down Allied bombers. By 1945, German women held 85% of the billets as clerics, accountants, interpreters, laboratory workers and administrative workers, together with half of the clerical and junior administrative posts in high-level field headquarters. The German nursing service consisted of four main organizations: one for
Catholics The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2025. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institut ...
, one for
Protestants Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes Justification (theology), justification of sinners Sola fide, through faith alone, the teaching that Salvation in Christianity, salvation comes by unmerited Grace in Christianity, divin ...
, the secular DRK (Red Cross), and the "Brown Nurses" for committed
Nazi Nazism (), formally named National Socialism (NS; , ), is the far-right politics, far-right Totalitarianism, totalitarian socio-political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Germany. During H ...
women. Military nursing was primarily handled by the DRK, which came under partial Nazi control. Front line medical services were provided by male medics and doctors. Red Cross nurses served widely within the military medical services, staffing the hospitals close to the front lines and at risk of attack. Two dozen nurses were awarded the
Iron Cross The Iron Cross (, , abbreviated EK) was a military decoration in the Kingdom of Prussia, the German Empire (1871–1918), and Nazi Germany (1933–1945). The design, a black cross pattée with a white or silver outline, was derived from the in ...
for heroism under fire. Brown Nurses were forced to look away while their incapacitated patients were murdered by
war criminals A war crime is a violation of the laws of war that gives rise to individual criminal responsibility for actions by combatants in action, such as intentionally killing civilians or intentionally killing prisoners of war, torture, taking hostag ...
. Hundreds of women auxiliaries ('' Aufseherinnen'') served in the SS in the camps, the majority of which were at Ravensbrück. Members of the '' SS-Gefolge'' were civilians who served the SS but were not formally a part of the SS. On the home front, women were increasingly mobilized for war production as the war turned against the Nazis. Nazi ideology had sought to exclude women from public life outside of "''
Kinder, Küche, Kirche ''Kinder, Küche, Kirche'' (), or the 3 Ks, is a German slogan translated as "children, kitchen, church" used under the German Empire to describe a woman's role in society. It now has a mostly derogatory connotation, describing what is seen as an ...
''" (Children, Kitchen, Church), but labour shortages made this untenable, in spite of the widespread use of
slave labour Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
. Nazi policies encouraged reproduction by women belonging to the putative "
Aryan race The Aryan race is a pseudoscientific historical race concepts, historical race concept that emerged in the late-19th century to describe people who descend from the Proto-Indo-Europeans as a Race (human categorization), racial grouping. The ter ...
", with the goal of producing future workers and soldiers for the ''
Volksgemeinschaft ''Volksgemeinschaft'' () is a German expression meaning "people's community", "folk community", Richard Grunberger, ''A Social History of the Third Reich'', London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971, p. 44. "national community", or "racial community" ...
''. Women also fought in the ''
Volkssturm The (, ) was a ''levée en masse'' national militia established by Nazi Germany during the last months of World War II. It was set up by the Nazi Party on the orders of Adolf Hitler and established on 25 September 1944. It was staffed by conscri ...
'' near the end of
World War Two World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies and the Axis powers. Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilisi ...
. Girls as young as 14 years were trained in the use of
small arms A firearm is any type of gun that uses an explosive charge and is designed to be readily carried and operated by an individual. The term is legally defined further in different countries (see legal definitions). The first firearms originate ...
, ''
panzerfaust The (, or , plural: ) was a development family of single-shot man-portable anti-tank systems developed by Nazi Germany during World War II. The weapons were the first single-use light anti-tank weapons based on a pre-loaded disposable laun ...
'', machine guns, and
hand grenades A grenade is a small explosive weapon typically thrown by hand (also called hand grenade), but can also refer to a shell (explosive projectile) shot from the muzzle of a rifle (as a rifle grenade) or a grenade launcher. A modern hand grenade g ...
from December 1944 through May 1945.


Italy

In Italy, during the second world war, the Female Auxiliary Service (Italian: ''Servizio Ausiliario Femminile'', SAF) was a women's corps of the armed forces of the
Italian Social Republic The Italian Social Republic (, ; RSI; , ), known prior to December 1943 as the National Republican State of Italy (; SNRI), but more popularly known as the Republic of Salò (, ), was a List of World War II puppet states#Germany, German puppe ...
, whose components, all voluntary, were commonly referred to as auxiliaries. The commander was the Brig. Gen.
Piera Gatteschi Fondelli Piera Fondelli Gatteschi (22 August 1902 - 7 September 1985) was the commander of the Female Auxiliary Service of the Italian Social Republic, a member of the National Fascist Party and a participant in the March on Rome. Early life Piera Fonde ...
.


Yugoslav Partisans

The Yugoslav National Liberation Movement had 6,000,000 civilian supporters; its two million women formed the Antifascist Front of Women (AFŽ), in which the revolutionary coexisted with the traditional. The AFŽ managed schools, hospitals and local governments. About 100,000 women served with 600,000 men in Tito's
Yugoslav National Liberation Army The Yugoslav Partisans,Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian, and Slovene: , officially the National Liberation Army and Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia sh-Latn-Cyrl, Narodnooslobodilačka vojska i partizanski odredi Jugoslavije (NOV i POJ), Наро ...
. It stressed its dedication to women's rights and gender equality and used the imagery of folklore heroines to attract and legitimize the fighters. After the war, although women were relegated to traditional
gender role A gender role, or sex role, is a social norm deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their gender or sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of masculinity and femininity. The specifics regarding these gendered ...
s, Yugoslavia's historians emphasized women's roles in the resistance. After Yugoslavia broke up in the 1990s, women's contributions to the resistance were forgotten.


Jewish Parachutists of Mandate Palestine

The
Jewish Parachutists of Mandate Palestine The Jewish Parachutists of Mandate Palestine were a group of 250 Jewish men and women from Mandate Palestine who volunteered for operations run by British organisations MI9 and the Special Operations Executive (SOE) which involved parachuting in ...
were a group of 250
Jewish Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
men and women from the
Yishuv The Yishuv (), HaYishuv Ha'ivri (), or HaYishuv HaYehudi Be'Eretz Yisra'el () was the community of Jews residing in Palestine prior to the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. The term came into use in the 1880s, when there were about 2 ...
communities in
Mandatory Palestine Mandatory Palestine was a British Empire, British geopolitical entity that existed between 1920 and 1948 in the Palestine (region), region of Palestine, and after 1922, under the terms of the League of Nations's Mandate for Palestine. After ...
. The group members would go to missions run by British organisations
MI9 MI9, the British Directorate of Military Intelligence Section 9, was a secret department of the War Office between 1939 and 1945. During World War II it had two principal tasks: assisting in the escape of Allied prisoners of war (POWs) held b ...
and the
Special Operations Executive Special Operations Executive (SOE) was a British organisation formed in 1940 to conduct espionage, sabotage and reconnaissance in German-occupied Europe and to aid local Resistance during World War II, resistance movements during World War II. ...
(SOE) involving parachuting into
German-occupied Europe German-occupied Europe, or Nazi-occupied Europe, refers to the sovereign countries of Europe which were wholly or partly military occupation, militarily occupied and civil-occupied, including puppet states, by the (armed forces) and the governmen ...
. The group had both women and men, and one of the most known members were Chana Senesh and
Haviva Reik Haviva Reik (alternately Haviva Reick, Havivah Reich, Chaviva Reiková or Chaviva Reich) (22 June 1914 – 20 November 1944) was one of 32 or 33 parachutists sent by the Jewish Agency and Britain's MI9 on military missions in Nazi-occupied Europe. ...
whom were subsequently executed.


History by country


Democratic Republic of the Congo

The
Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), also known as the DR Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo (the last ambiguously also referring to the neighbouring Republic of the Congo), is a country in Central Africa. By land area, it is t ...
began training an initial 150 women as para-commandos for the Armée Nationale Congolaise in 1967. Many more were trained subsequently, over a period of years. The women received parachute and weapons training, although it is unclear to what extent they were actually integrated into the combat units of the Congo.


Eritrea

In 1999, the
BBC The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public service broadcaster headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, England. Originally established in 1922 as the British Broadcasting Company, it evolved into its current sta ...
reported that about a quarter of the
Eritrea Eritrea, officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa, with its capital and largest city being Asmara. It is bordered by Ethiopia in the Eritrea–Ethiopia border, south, Sudan in the west, and Dj ...
n soldiers in the
Eritrean–Ethiopian War The Eritrean–Ethiopian War, also known as the Badme War, was a major armed conflict between Ethiopia and Eritrea that took place from May 6, 1998 to June 18, 2000. After 1993 Eritrean independence referendum, Eritrea gained independence from E ...
were women.


Israel

Mandatory conscription for single and married women without children began in 1948. Initially, women conscripts served in the Women's Army Corps, serving as clerks, drivers, welfare workers, nurses, radio operators, flight controllers, ordnance personnel, and instructors. Roles for women beyond technical and secretarial support began opening up in the late 1970s and early 1980s. In 2000, the Equality amendment to the Military Service law granted equal opportunities in the military to women found physically and personally suitable for a job. Women started to enter combat support and light combat roles in a few areas, including the Artillery Corps, infantry units and armored divisions. A few platoons named Carakal were formed for men and women to serve together in light infantry. Many women joined the
Border Police A border guard of a country is a national security agency that ensures border security. Some of the national border guard agencies also perform coast guard (as in Federal Police (Germany), Germany, Guardia di Finanza, Italy or State Border Guar ...
. Despite these changes, as of 2014, fewer than 4 percent of women service members were in combat positions such as infantry, crew of tanks or other armored vehicles, artillery guns service, fighter pilots, etc. Rather, they are concentrated in "combat-support".Gaza: It's a Man's War
The Atlantic, 7 Aug 2014
In 2023, the mostly-female Caracal battalion was involved in intense fighting when Hamas militants infiltrated the border area near Gaza in October 2023. The female soldiers battled militants for nearly four hours as part of the broader effort to repel the incursion. By some accounts, they played a decisive part in the clashes, with estimates that the unit killed around 100 Hamas members. None of the female combat soldiers were killed during the engagement, which has been characterized as a validation of their abilities. The unit's performance in real-world combat against Hamas is also seen as proof that women can execute infantry missions effectively when given the requisite training.


United States

Women have been involved in the U.S. military since 1775, originally in the civilian fields of nursing, laundering, mending clothing and cooking.
Deborah Sampson Deborah Sampson Gannett, also known as Deborah Samson or Deborah Sampson, (December 17, 1760 – April 29, 1827) was a Massachusetts woman who disguised herself as a man in order to serve in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary ...
was one of the first women to serve in the American military. She was unhappy with her limited role in the
American Revolution The American Revolution (1765–1783) was a colonial rebellion and war of independence in which the Thirteen Colonies broke from British America, British rule to form the United States of America. The revolution culminated in the American ...
, and she enlisted in the
Continental Army The Continental Army was the army of the United Colonies representing the Thirteen Colonies and later the United States during the American Revolutionary War. It was formed on June 14, 1775, by a resolution passed by the Second Continental Co ...
disguised as a man under the name Robert Shirtliff. She served in a light infantry unit, fighting in many battles. After 17 months of service, including suffering a serious leg injury, she fell ill and unconscious. Her secret was discovered in the hospital by the doctor. Soon after, Sampson revealed her secret, through a letter written by the doctor, to her commanding officer, General John Paterson. He discharged her, thanked her for her service, and sent her home. Many women contributed to the
American Civil War The American Civil War (April 12, 1861May 26, 1865; also known by Names of the American Civil War, other names) was a civil war in the United States between the Union (American Civil War), Union ("the North") and the Confederate States of A ...
, through nursing, spying, and fighting on the battlefield. For example, Belle Royd began her career as a spy and messenger at age 17. By age 20, she became famous in the United States and was dubbed the Cleopatra of the Confederacy. As a spy, she provided confederate leaders with valuable information. She was arrested multiple times and imprisoned. Eventually, she was banished from federal soil and was told she would receive a death sentence if she were caught on federal soil again. Those who fought in the war disguised themselves as males and went by men's aliases."Female Soldiers in the Civil War." American Battlefield Trust, The History Channel, 15 Mar. 2018. It wasn't difficult for women to conceal their true identities because soldiers showered separately and were fully clothed the majority of the time. In addition, both men and women would join the army with no previous military experience, so their training was very similar and the women would not stand out.
Sophronia Smith Hunt Sophronia Smith Hunt (; October 1846—August 1, 1928) was an American woman who disguised herself as a man and secretly served as a soldier in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Her first soldier husband died after he was wounded at th ...
disguised herself as a man and served at the
Battle of Jenkins' Ferry The Battle of Jenkins' Ferry, also known as the Engagement at Jenkins' Ferry, was fought on April 30, 1864, in Hot Spring and Saline counties (present-day Grant County), Arkansas, during the American Civil War The American Civil War ...
. She fought alongside her first husband, who was wounded in the battle and later died. The most common way for women to be discovered was through injury. For instance, in 1861, Mary Owens claimed to have enlisted in the Union Army disguised as the "brother" of William Evans, with whom she was in a romantic relationship. To avoid combat, Owens claimed she took the job of delivering handwritten messages to commanders on the battlefield. After her lover was killed in battle, Mary said she decided to avenge his death by fighting on the battlefield. She sustained an injury to her forehead and was sent to the hospital for treatment, where her female identity was revealed. She was discharged from the military. Those who were discovered would either be sent home or punished. Mary was supposedly warmly welcomed back into her town. Other disguised women were uncovered by chance. Sarah Collins was a strong woman who believed she could do the job of a male soldier. Her brother, also a soldier, assisted her in disguising as a man by cutting her hair short and dressing her up in men's apparel. Her true identity was discovered due to her improperly placing her shoes. Sarah was then sent home while her brother remained fighting. It is difficult for historians to estimate the true number of women who fought in the war because of their disguises and aliases, as well as their desire for discretion. Women joined the fray of the Civil War for similar reasons as men: the promise of a steady wage, innate sense of patriotism, or the thrill of an adventure. Some women would even follow their loved ones into battle. In 1917,
Loretta Walsh Loretta Perfectus Walsh (April 22, 1896 – August 6, 1925) was the first American woman to officially serve in the United States Armed Forces in a non-nursing capacity. She joined the United States Naval Reserve on March 17, 1917, and subs ...
became the first woman to enlist openly as a woman when she joined the Navy. In 1948, prior the
Korean War The Korean War (25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) was an armed conflict on the Korean Peninsula fought between North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea; DPRK) and South Korea (Republic of Korea; ROK) and their allies. North Korea was s ...
, the United States passed the
Women's Armed Services Integration Act Women's Armed Services Integration Act () is a United States law that enabled women to serve as permanent, regular members of the armed forces in the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and the recently formed Air Force. Prior to this act, women, with the ex ...
which allowed women to serve in the permanent, regular members of the U.S. military.() The law limited the percentage of enlisted women to 2% of the enlisted number, the number of officers to 10% of the number of enlisted women, and capped the rank a women could achieve at O-5 (lieutenant colonel/commander (USN)), with an exception of O-6 for the chief of a women's component. In November 1967, Public Law 90-130 was enacted, which removed the 2% ceiling on the number of women allowed on active duty, and lifted the rank ceiling, opening promotions to general and flag ranks for women. In 1976, the first group of women was admitted into a U.S. military academy. Approximately 16% of the 2013
West Point The United States Military Academy (USMA), commonly known as West Point, is a United States service academies, United States service academy in West Point, New York that educates cadets for service as Officer_(armed_forces)#United_States, comm ...
class consisted of women.


Vietnam War

Though relatively little official data exists about female
Vietnam War The Vietnam War (1 November 1955 – 30 April 1975) was an armed conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia fought between North Vietnam (Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and South Vietnam (Republic of Vietnam) and their allies. North Vietnam w ...
veterans, the Vietnam Women's Memorial Foundation estimates that approximately 11,000 military women were stationed in Vietnam during the conflict. Nearly all of them were volunteers, and 90 percent served as military nurses, though women also worked as physicians, air traffic controllers, intelligence officers, clerks and other positions in the U.S. Women's Army Corps, U.S. Navy, Air Force and Marines and the Army Medical Specialist Corps. In addition to women in the armed forces, an unknown number of civilian women served in Vietnam on behalf of the Red Cross, United Service Organizations (USO), Catholic Relief Services and other humanitarian organizations, or as foreign correspondents for various news organizations. In addition to the U.S. military women who served in Vietnam, the exact number of female civilians who willingly gave their services on Vietnamese soil during the conflict is unknown; an estimate by American scholar
Marilyn B. Young Marilyn B. Young (April 25, 1937 – February 19, 2017) was a historian of American foreign relations and professor of history at New York University. She graduated from Samuel J. Tilden High School in Brooklyn in 1953 and Vassar College in 1957. ...
said that altogether, between 33,000 and 55,000 women worked in Vietnam during the war. Many of them worked on behalf of the
American Red Cross The American National Red Cross is a Nonprofit organization, nonprofit Humanitarianism, humanitarian organization that provides emergency assistance, disaster relief, and disaster preparedness education in the United States. Clara Barton founded ...
, Army Special Services, United Service Organizations (USO),
Peace Corps The Peace Corps is an Independent agency of the U.S. government, independent agency and program of the United States government that trains and deploys volunteers to communities in partner countries around the world. It was established in Marc ...
, and various religious groups such as Catholic Relief Services. Aside from the perspective of the United States, more than a million Vietnamese women served in varying military positions in North Vietnam; women were often engaged in combat directly with southern forces.


Gulf War

In 1990 and 1991, some 40,000 American military women were deployed during the
Gulf War , combatant2 = , commander1 = , commander2 = , strength1 = Over 950,000 soldiers3,113 tanks1,800 aircraft2,200 artillery systems , page = https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GAOREPORTS-PEMD-96- ...
operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm; however, no women served in combat. A policy enacted in 1994 prohibited women from assignment to ground combat units below the brigade level. Two women were taken prisoner by Iraqi forces and both of them were threatened and abused.


Contemporary

The approximate proportion of female military personnel varies by country as shown in below table.


United States

The
United States military The United States Armed Forces are the Military, military forces of the United States. U.S. United States Code, federal law names six armed forces: the United States Army, Army, United States Marine Corps, Marine Corps, United States Navy, Na ...
opens all positions to women. Units such as
Special Operations Special operations or special ops are military activities conducted, according to NATO, by "specially designated, organized, selected, trained, and equipped forces using unconventional techniques and modes of employment." Special operations ma ...
require members to meet extraordinary requirements, and very few women have met them. As of 2024, it is reported that three women have completed the Army's elite Special Forces course, two have completed Navy Special Warfare Training to become a Naval Special Warfare combatant-craft crewman, one has completed the Air Force special tactics courses necessary to become a Combat Controller, three have completed the Air Force training necessary to become a Tactical Air Control Party airman, and one has completed the Air Force's elite
Special Reconnaissance Special reconnaissance (SR) is conducted by small units, such as a recon team, made up of highly trained military personnel, usually from special forces units and/or military intelligence organizations. Special reconnaissance teams operate behind ...
course. Women have not historically been required to register for Selective Services; however, federal judge Gray Miller of the
United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas The United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas (in case citations, S.D. Tex.) is the federal district court with jurisdiction over the southeastern part of Texas. The court's headquarters is in Houston, Houston, Texas, and ...
, ruled on February 2, 2019 that an all-male draft is unconstitutional. The issue was brought when
Marc Angelucci Marc Etienne Angelucci (March 30, 1968 – July 11, 2020) was an American attorney, men's rights activist, and the vice-president of the National Coalition for Men (NCFM). As a lawyer, he represented several cases related to men's rights issu ...
sued the Selective Service on behalf of the
National Coalition for Men The National Coalition for Men (NCFM), formerly the National Coalition of Free Men, is a non-profit educational and civil rights organization which aims to address the ways sex discrimination affects men and boys. The organization has sponsored c ...
. Subsequently, the Fifth Circuit overturned Miller's ruling, sending the case to the Supreme Court who would refuse to hear it. June 2021, Supreme Court Justices Sotomayor, Breyer, and Kavanaugh authored an opinion stating the draft to be likely unconstitutional, and under review since 2016, by Congress and the National Commission on Military, National, and Public Service.


Policy changes

Until 1993, 67 percent of the positions in the Army were open to women. In 2013, 15.6 percent of the Army's 1.1 million soldiers, including
National Guard National guard is the name used by a wide variety of current and historical uniformed organizations in different countries. The original National Guard was formed during the French Revolution around a cadre of defectors from the French Guards. ...
And
Reserve Reserve or reserves may refer to: Places * Reserve, Kansas, a US city * Reserve, Louisiana, a census-designated place in St. John the Baptist Parish * Reserve, Montana, a census-designated place in Sheridan County * Reserve, New Mexico, a US v ...
, were female, serving in 95 percent of occupations. As of 2017, 78 percent of the positions in the Army were open to women. It was only in 2015 that the Department of Defense dropped its ban on women in combat roles, and integration of women into these MOS's has been slow. In the
U.S. Air Force The United States Air Force (USAF) is the air service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is one of the six United States Armed Forces and one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. Tracing its origins to 1 ...
, in 2015, 99% of career fields are open to women, with the exceptions of United States Air Force Special Tactics Officer, Special Tactics Officer, Combat Control, Special Operations Weather Technician, Combat Rescue Officer, Pararescue and Tactical Air Control Party. In 2013, female US Army soldiers enrolled in a training course designed by Combined Joint Task Force Paladin, specifically designed for Female Engagement Team members. The course was intended to train female soldiers for tasks such as unexploded ordnance awareness, biometrics, Forensic science, forensics, evidence collection, tactical questioning, vehicle and personnel searches, and homemade explosive devices. By May 2015, none of the nineteen women vying to become the first female United States Army Rangers, Army Rangers had passed Ranger School. Eleven of the nineteen dropped out in the first four days. Of the remaining eight who failed in the next step, three were given the option to restart from the beginning. Two graduated in August 2015. A third graduated in October 2015. In April 2015, the United States Marine Corps, Marine Corps' Infantry Officer Course, which had been gender-integrated for two and a half years for research purposes, ended without a single female graduate. The final two participants failed the initial Combat Endurance Test. In 2016, United States Secretary of Defense, Secretary of Defense Ash Carter opened all military occupations to women, without exception. This opened up roughly 10% of all military jobs that had previously been closed to women, including positions in infantry, armor, reconnaissance, and some special operations units. Women have been injured, killed, and awarded high honors. Two women received the Silver Star for their actions in combat: Sergeant Leigh Ann Hester in 2005 and Army Specialist Monica Lin Brown in 2007. Over 10,000 combat action badges were awarded to women who served in combat in Iraq War, Iraq and War in Afghanistan (2001–present), Afghanistan. In 2022, the United States Army revised its 40-year-old fitness test – the Army Physical Fitness Test – with the new Army Combat Fitness Test. The test originally included leg tucks and was graded on an even field between age and gender. These factors lead to a low portion of female soldiers meeting adequate fitness scores, with 44% failing. The Army has since updated the exam, replacing leg tucks with a plank and grading based on a matrix that accounts for age and gender. This policy change allowed a majority of female soldiers to meet standards and set a precedent for breaking uniformity in expectations. In February 2023, a series of new policies were published by the US Defense Department in order to support military members. Anyone who receives an abortion could travel out of state and receive three weeks of administrative leave.


Physical, social, and cultural issues

A 2015 United States Marine Corps, Marine Corps study found that women in a unit created to assess female combat performance were significantly injured twice as often as men, were less accurate with infantry weapons, and were less skilled at removing wounded troops from the battlefield. The study assessed a nine-month experiment at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, and Twentynine Palms, California, Twentynine Palms, California. About 400 United States Marines, Marines, including 100 women, volunteered to participate. Male squads, teams, and crews demonstrated better performance on 93 of 134 tasks evaluated (69 percent) than units with women in them. Male units were faster while completing tactical movements in combat situations, especially in units with large "crew-served" weapons such as heavy machine guns and mortars. Male infantry squads had better accuracy than squads with women in them, with "a notable difference between genders for every individual weapons system" used by infantry rifleman units. The M4 carbine, M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle, M27 infantry automatic rifle, and M203 single-shot grenade launcher were assessed. Male United States Marines, Marines who had not received infantry training were more accurate than women who had received training. In removing wounded troops from the battlefield, "notable differences in execution times were found between all-male and gender-integrated groups". Unit cohesion was lower in mixed-gender units. Many female soldiers reported that the way they are viewed by male soldiers is often detrimental to their participation. For instance, female soldiers are often labeled as "either standoffish or a slut". In order to avoid such labels, female soldiers have to spend time with fellow soldiers strategically, without spending too much time with any one of them. This approach often has an isolating effect. In several instances, women were considered less skilled than male soldiers, so were not given opportunities to complete tasks for which they were qualified. According to Lieutenant Colonel Dave Grossman, author of ''On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society'', Israeli soldiers reacted with uncontrollable protectiveness and aggression after seeing a woman wounded. Further, Islamic militants rarely, if ever, surrender to female soldiers, lessening the Israel Defense Forces, IDF's ability to take prisoners. Iraqi and Afghan civilians are often not intimidated by female soldiers. However, in socially conservative environments, female combat soldiers can search female civilians, and children and women are more likely to talk to female soldiers than to male soldiers.


Sexual violence

One 2009 report concluded that military women were three times more likely to be raped than civilians, and that women soldiers in Iraq were more likely to be attacked by another soldier than by an insurgent. In 1988, the first military-wide sexual harassment survey found that 64% of military women had been subjected to some form of sexual harassment. The most affected were Native Americans in the United States, Native Americans, followed by Hispanics and African Americans, African-Americans. U.S. Senator Martha McSally, an Arizona Republicanism in the United States, Republican, said during a Senate meeting on sexual assault in the military that she was raped by a superior officer in the
U.S. Air Force The United States Air Force (USAF) is the air service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is one of the six United States Armed Forces and one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. Tracing its origins to 1 ...
. McSally was the first female combat pilot in the U.S. Air Force. She said that she never reported it because so many people did not trust the system, she blamed herself, was ashamed and confused, and thought she was strong but felt powerless. Sexual assault is more likely to occur in the military than in the civilian population. One-in-four active-duty female military personnel will be sexually assaulted. The military has a Code of Justice which defines sexual assault, rape, aggravated assault, abusive sexual assault, nonconsensual sodomy (forced oral or anal sex), or attempts to commit these acts. All of these acts are punishable by military law, which begins with the victim going forward to their commander. It is then the commander's job to make an inquiry on the perpetrator, however, they also have the right to dismiss the claims. They also have the right to issue non-judicial punishment or take the claim to a higher authority. The perpetrator's punishment can range from dismissal to dishonorable discharge, to confinement in military prison. If convicted of rape, the perpetrator could be imprisoned for life or in extreme cases even executed. 83 percent of women who reported sexual assault stated that their experiences with military legal personnel made them reluctant to seek further help. Many victims in the military describe the response to and aftermath of sexual assault as more painful than the assault itself because of the unspoken "code of silence", which implies that women should keep quiet about their assault and not come forward to take action. Women expect that little will be done, so most cases go unreported. When they are reported and taken to court, only ten percent of cases have the perpetrator charged for their crimes. Female soldiers have developed several techniques for avoiding sexual assault "including: (1) relying on support networks [buddy systems], (2) capitalizing on their status (associated with rank, age, time spent in the military, or prior deployment experience), and (3) masking femininity through clothing to minimize violence exposure and to keep themselves and others safe during military service". Such strategies leave the burden of addressing the problem on potential victims. Conversely, in many units, soldiers pair off as "buddies" who watch out for each other. In mostly male units, females buddy up with males, who then often become excessively protective, reducing the female's Agency (philosophy), agency. A lawsuit seeks redress for military plaintiffs who claim to have been subjected to sexual assault. ''The Invisible War'' addresses this lawsuit and topic.


Effects of sexual assault

Sexual assault leads to many health problems, such as anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, substance abuse, binge eating, dissociation and memory impairment, suicidal and parasuicidal behavior, sexual dysfunction and dissatisfaction, poor self-esteem, and personality disorders, such as borderline personality disorder. It also takes a toll on physical health, and many women have reported menstrual complications, headaches, back pain, and gastrointestinal pain. All of these factors make it hard for women to stay in the military; sexual assault is the leading cause for early leave of women in the armed forces. Working for — and living alongside — perpetrators of sexual violence exacerbates the difficulties that victims in the military face. This close relationship creates a new type of trauma as the victim is forced to see the perpetrator every day, fomenting distrust in others. Once leaving the military, these women often have a hard time reintegrating back into society. Difficulties include challenges with close relationships, occupational adjustments and homelessness. A 2000 study found that these women were more likely to fail to complete college and earn incomes less than $25,000. Their work can involve frequent interactions with their attacker, which damages trust in the institution. Perpetrators are typically in a higher position and are supposed to have protected the woman, which can increase trauma. Updated military training focuses on bystander interventions and the role of consent in sexual activity, emphasizing the responsibility of male soldiers. Some female soldiers assume the classically male role of "protector". This works to change women's "responsibility for preventing rape" and requires that male soldiers acknowledge their responsibility to engage with female soldiers in all activities.


Gender roles in the military

A 2021 study which randomly assigned some men in Norwegian Armed Forces, Norwegian bootcamp to mixed-gender squads and others to male squads found that men in the integrated squads did not perform worse or become less satisfied with their service than the other men, either during boot camp or their subsequent military assignment. Furthermore, the men in the integrated squads developed more egalitarian attitudes. A 2008 study found that female cadets saw military training as an "opportunity to be strong, assertive and skillful" and saw such training "as an escape from some of the negative aspects of traditional femininity". The female cadets also believed that the ROTC program was "gender-blind" and "gender-neutral". The study claims that female cadets "were hyper-vigilant about their status as women, performing tasks traditionally seen as men's work and often felt that they had to constantly prove they were capable." The study quoted one female cadet: "in the Navy the joke is that a woman in the Navy is either a bitch, a slut or a lesbian, and ''none of them are good categories to fall into'', and if you are stern with your people then you are a bitch, but if you're a guy and stern people are like, wow, I respect him for being a good leader." 84 percent of cadets said they did not want a military career as it would interfere with marriage and raising children. A 2009 study examined the attitudes of West Point cadets, Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) cadets, and non-military-affiliated students from civilian colleges toward a variety of military roles. Cadets were less approving of assigning women to certain military jobs than others. As of 2018, only two women have completed the United States Marine's Infantry Officer Course, while in 2016, 86% of women failed the Marines' combat jobs test.


On submarines

In 1985, the Royal Norwegian Navy became the first navy in the world to permit female personnel to serve in submarines. The first female submarine commander was Captain Solveig Krey aboard the first Kobben-class submarine, Kobben class submarine on September 11, 1995. The Danish Navy allowed women on submarines in 1988, the Swedish Navy in 1989, followed by the Royal Australian Navy in 1998, Canada in 2000 and Spain. On April 29, 2010, the United States Navy authorized women to serve aboard submarines. Previously, objections such as the need for separate accommodation and facilities (estimates that modifying submarines to accommodate women would cost $300,000 per bunk versus $4,000 per bunk on aircraft carriers) had prevented the change. The Navy stated that larger Cruise missile submarine, SSGN and Ballistic missile submarine, SSBN submarines had more available space and could accommodate female officers with little/no modification. Qualified female candidates with the desire to serve were available. (Women then represented 15 percent of active duty sailorsNavy Office of Information, "Women on Submarines", Rhumblines, 5 October 2009. and were earning about half of all science and engineering bachelor's degrees.) In May 2014, it was announced that three women had become the UK Royal Navy's first female submariners. On November 15, 2017, the first Argentinean female submarine officer, Eliana Krawczyk, disappeared in the Atlantic Ocean after the Argentine Navy lost contact with the submarine ARA San Juan (S-42), ARA ''San Juan'' after a reported failure in the electric system. As one of the 44 crew members lost at sea, Krawczyk was honored by the country's Jewish community as "La Reina De Los Mares" on International Women's Day in 2018. On July 4, 2017, after two years of training, four female officers boarded a French SSBN for France's first seventy-day mixed gender patrol. The next generation of French submarines is designed to welcome women. Women are expected to join submarine crews in the Royal Netherlands Navy in 2019, with the addition of shower doors and changing-room curtains. In 2020, Risa Takenouchi became the first female student to enroll in Japan's MSDF Submarine Training Center, following the overturning of restrictions on women submariners.


In combat

Some nations allow female soldiers to serve in certain combat arms positions. Others exclude them for various reasons, including physical demands and privacy policies. Among the NATO nations, and as of the mid-1970s, women were able to attain military status in the following countries: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Non-conscription countries, notably the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada, are where the highest levels of female military presences have been achieved. Canada is marked as particularly progressive in its early implementation of gender equality practices. A rise in the call for equal opportunity coupled with the decline of able-bodied men willing to enter military service coaxed countries to reform policies toward female inclusion. With the opening of submarine service in 2000, women had free rein to enlist in any kind of military service.


See also

* Women in war * Women in warfare and the military (1945–1999) * Women in warfare and the military (2000–present) * Women in the military in Europe * Women in the Philippine military * Women in the military in the Americas * Women in the United States Army * Women in the United States Marine Corps * Women in the United States Navy * Women in the United States Air Force * Women in the United States Coast Guard * Women in the United States Space Force * Puerto Rican women in the military * List of women warriors in folklore * Gender in security studies * Wartime cross-dressers


Notes


Further reading


Bibliography

* Fasting, Kari and Trond Svela Sand eds., (2010). "Gender and Military Issues – A Categorized Research Bibliography." ''Moving Soldiers – Soldaten i bevegelse'' 01/2010.

* Sand, Trond Svela and Kari Fasting eds., (2012), "Gender and Military Issues in the Scandinavian Countries – A Categorized Research Bibliography." ''Moving Soldiers – Soldaten i bevegelse'' 01/2012.

*


History

* Cook, Bernard, ed, (2006). ''Women and War: Historical Encyclopedia from Antiquity to the Present.'' * Elshtain, Jean Bethke. ''Women and War'' (1995) * Elshtain Jean, and Sheila Tobias, eds., ''Women, Militarism, and War'' (1990), * Goldman, Nancy Loring ed. (1982). ''Female Soldiers--Combatants or Noncombatants? Historical and Contemporary Perspectives.'' * Goldstein, Joshua S. . ''War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa'' (2003), psychology perspective * Hacker, Barton C. and Margaret Vining, eds. ''A Companion to Women's Military History'' (2012) 625pp; articles by scholars covering a very wide range of topics * Hall, Richard H. ''Women on the Civil War battlefront'' (University Press of Kansas 2006). * * Jones, David. ''Women Warriors: A History,'' Brassey's, 1997 * Pennington, Reina, (2003). ''Amazons to Fighter Pilots: A Biographical Dictionary of Military Women.'' *


World War II

* Biddiscombe, Perry, (2011). "Into the Maelstrom: German Women in Combat, 1944-45," ''War & Society'' (2011), 30#1 pp 61–89 * Bidwell, Shelford. ''The Women's Royal Army Corps'' (London, 1977) on Britain * Campbell, D'Ann. ''Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era'' (Harvard University Press, 1984). on WW2 * Campbell, D'Ann. "Servicewomen of World War II", ''Armed Forces and Society'' (Win 1990) 16: 251–270. statistical study based on interviews * Campbell, D'Ann. "Women in Combat: The World War Two Experience in the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union" ''Journal of Military History'' (April 1993), 57:301-323
online edition
* Cottam, K. Jean ''Soviet Airwomen in Combat in World War II'' (Manhattan, KS: Military Affairs/Aerospace Historian Publishing, 1983) * DeGroot G.J. "Whose Finger on the Trigger? Mixed Anti-Aircraft Batteries and the Female Combat Taboo," ''War in History,'' Volume 4, Number 4, December 1997, pp. 434–453 * Dombrowski, Nicole Ann. ''Women and War in the Twentieth Century: Enlisted With or Without Consent'' (1999) * Dominé, Jean-François, (2008). ''Les femmes au combat; l'arme féminine de la France pendant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale'' * * * Krylova, Anna, (2010). ''Soviet Women in Combat: A History of Violence on the Eastern Front.'' * Morton, Alison. ''Military or civilians? The curious anomaly of the German Women's Auxiliary Services during the Second World War.'' 2012. ASIN B007JUR408 * Markwick, Roger D. (2008). "A Sacred Duty": Red Army Women Veterans Remembering the Great Fatherland War, 1941–1945," ''Australian Journal of Politics & History,'' (2008), 54#3 pp. 403-420. * Maubach, Franka; Satjukow, Silke. (2009). "Zwischen Emanzipation und Trauma: Soldatinnen im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Deutschland, Sowjetunion, USA)" ''Historische Zeitschrift,'' (April 2009), Vol. 288 Issue 2, pp 347–384 * Merry, Lois K, (2010). ''Women Military Pilots of World War II: A History with Biographies of American, British, Russian and German Aviators.'' * Pennington, Reina, (2007). ''Wings, Women & War: Soviet Airwomen in World War II Combat'' * Pennington, Reina, (2010). "Offensive Women: Women in Combat in the Red Army in the Second World War" ''Journal of Military History,'' July 2010, Vol. 74 Issue 3, p775-820 * Pierson, Ruth Roach. (1986). ''They're Still Women After All: The Second World War and Canadian Womanhood.'' * McBryde, Brenda. (1985). ''Quiet Heroines: Story of the Nurses of the Second World War,'' on British * Sarnecky, Mary T. (1999). ''A History of the U.S. Army Nurse Corps'' * * Toman, Cynthia, (2007). ''An Officer and a Lady: Canadian Military Nursing and the Second World War.'' * Treadwell, Mattie E. (1954). ''United States Army in World War II: Special Studies: The Women's Army Corps''. the standard history; part of the Army "Green series
online free
* Williamson, Gordon, (2003). ''World War II German Women's Auxiliary Services''


Recent

* Campbell, D'Ann. (2012) "Almost Integrated? American Servicewomen and Their International Sisters Since World War II" in ''A Companion to Women's Military History'' ed by Barton C. Hacker and Margaret Vining pp 291–330 * Carreiras, Helena. ''Gender and the military: women in the armed forces of Western democracies'' (New York: Routledge, 2006) * Carreiras, Helena and Gerhard Kammel (eds.) ''Women in the Military and in Armed Conflict'' (2008
excerpt and text search
* Dandeker, Christopher, and Mady Wechsler Segal. "Gender integration in armed forces: recent policy developments in the United Kingdom" ''Armed Forces & Society'' 23#1 (Fall 1996): 29–47. * Eulriet, Irène. ''Women and the military in Europe: comparing public cultures'' (New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 2009) * Frampton, James Scott ''The Influence of Attitudes and Morale on the Performance of Active-Duty United States Marine Corps Female Security Guards'' (2011) * Frank, Nathaniel et al. eds. ''Gays in foreign militaries 2010: A global primer'' (Santa Barbara, CA: Palm Center, 2010) * * * Goldman, Nancy. "The Changing Role of Women in the Armed Forces." ''American Journal of Sociology'' 1973 78(4): 892–911. * Herbert, Melissa S. ''Camouflage Isn't Only for Combat: Gender, Sexuality, and Women in the Military'' (New York U. Press, 1998) * ; women from the United States * Gayle Tzemach Lemmon, Lemmon, Gayle Tzemach. ''Ashley's War: The Untold Story of a Team of Women Soldiers on the Special Ops Battlefield'' (HarperCollins, 2015) American women * Rosemarie Skaine, Skaine, Rosemarie. ''Women at War: Gender Issues of Americans in Combat.'' McFarland, 1999. * United States Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women. (1993) ''Report on the Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women''


Middle East

* Holmstedt, Kirsten. ''Band of Sisters: American Women at War in Iraq'' (2007
excerpt and text search
* Holmstedt, Kirsten.
The Girls Come Marching Home
* Wise, James E. and Scott Baron. ''Women at War: Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Conflicts'' (2006) *


Social science studies

* * * * * * * Mitchell, Brian. 1998. ''Women in the Military: Flirting with Disaster''. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing. xvii, 390 *


External links

* {{Authority control Women in the military, Military history by topic