Weld quality assurance is the use of technological methods and actions to test or assure the quality of welds, and secondarily to confirm the presence, location and coverage of welds. In manufacturing, welds are used to join two or more metal surfaces. Because these connections may encounter loads and

fatigue Fatigue is a state of tiredness (which is not sleepiness), exhaustion or loss of energy. It is a signs and symptoms, symptom of any of various diseases; it is not a disease in itself. Fatigue (in the medical sense) is sometimes associated wit ...

during

product lifetime Product lifetime or product lifespan is the time interval from when a product is sold to when it is discarded. Product lifetime is slightly different from service life because the latter considers only the effective time the product is used. It ...

, there is a chance they may fail if not created to proper specification.

Weld testing and analysis

Methods of weld testing and analysis are used to assure the quality and correctness of the weld after it is completed. This term generally refers to testing and analysis focused on the quality and strength of the weld but may refer to technological actions to check for the presence, position, and extent of welds. These are divided into destructive and non-destructive methods. A few examples of destructive testing include macro etch testing, fillet-weld break tests, transverse tension tests, and guided bend tests.http://www.esabna.com/us/en/education/knowledge/weldinginspection/Destructive-Testing-of-Welds.cfm ''Destructive Testing of Welds by ESAB '' Other destructive methods include acid etch testing, back bend testing, tensile strength break testing, nick break testing, and free bend testing. Non-destructive methods include fluorescent penetrate tests, magnaflux tests, eddy current (electromagnetic) tests, hydrostatic testing, tests using magnetic particles, X-rays and gamma ray-based methods, and acoustic emission techniques. Other methods include ferrite and hardness testing.

Imaging-based methods

Industrial Radiography Industrial radiography is a modality of non-destructive testing that uses ionizing radiation to inspect materials and components with the objective of locating and quantifying defects and degradation in material properties that would lead to the ...

X-ray-based weld inspection may be manual, performed by an inspector on X-ray-based images or video, or automated using

machine vision Machine vision is the technology and methods used to provide image, imaging-based automation, automatic inspection and analysis for such applications as automatic inspection, process control, and robot guidance, usually in industry. Machine vision ...

. Gamma Rays can also be used

Visible light imaging

Inspection may be manual, conducted by an inspector using imaging equipment, or automated using

. Since the similarity of materials between weld and workpiece, and between good and defective areas, provides little inherent contrast, the latter usually requires methods other than simple imaging. One (destructive) method involves the microscopic analysis of a weld cross-section.http://www.clemex.com/pdf/reports/WeldingAnalysis692.pdf Welding Analysis – Image Analysis Report #692, Clemex Technologies Inc.

Ultrasonic- and acoustic-based methods

Ultrasonic testing Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of non-destructive testing techniques based on the propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or material tested. In most common UT applications, very short ultrasonic pulse waves with centre frequencie ...

uses the principle that a gap in the weld changes the propagation of ultrasonic sound through the metal. One common method uses single-probe ultrasonic testing involving operator interpretation of an oscilloscope-type screen.http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/jres/109/2/j92den.pdf Spot Weld Analysis with 2D ultrasonic Arrays Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Volume 109, Number 2, March–April 2004 A.A. Denisov, C.M Shakarji, B.B. Lawforfd, R. Gr. Maev J.M Paille Another senses using a 2D array of ultrasonic sensors. Conventional, phased array and time of flight diffraction (TOFD) methods can be combined into the same piece of test equipment.On-Site Ultrasonics, Marc-Antoine Blanchet, Quality Magazine, April 2012, pages 6-7 (NDT section) Acoustic emission methods monitor for the sound created by the loading or flexing of the weld.

Peel testing of spot welds

This method includes tearing the weld apart and measuring the size of the remaining weld.

Weld monitoring

Weld monitoring methods ensure the weld's quality and correctness during welding. The term is generally applied to automated monitoring for weld-quality purposes and secondarily for process-control purposes such as vision-based robot guidance. Visual weld monitoring is also performed during the

welding Welding is a fabrication (metal), fabrication process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, primarily by using high temperature to melting, melt the parts together and allow them to cool, causing Fusion welding, fusion. Co ...

process. On vehicular applications, weld monitoring aims to enable improvements in the quality, durability, and safety of vehicles – with cost savings in the avoidance of recalls to fix the large proportion of systemic quality problems that arise from suboptimal welding. Quality monitoring of automatic welding can save production downtime and reduce the need for product reworking and recall. Industrial monitoring systems encourage high production rates and reduce scrap costs.

Inline coherent imaging

Inline coherent imaging (ICI) is a recently developed interferometric technique based on

optical coherence tomography Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a high-resolution imaging technique with most of its applications in medicine and biology. OCT uses coherent near-infrared light to obtain micrometer-level depth resolved images of biological tissue or oth ...

https://www.osapublishing.org/ol/abstract.cfm?uri=ol-39-21-6217 ''Automatic laser welding and milling with in situ inline coherent imaging '' by P. J. L. Webster, L. G. Wright, Y. Ji, C. M. Galbraith, A. W. Kinross, C. Van Vlack, and J. M. Fraser that is used for quality assurance of keyhole

laser beam welding Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding technique used to join pieces of metal or thermoplastics through the use of a laser. The beam provides a concentrated heat source, allowing for narrow, deep welds and high welding rates. The process is freque ...

, a welding method that is gaining popularity in a variety of industries. ICI aims a low-powered broadband light source through the same optical path as the primary welding laser. The beam enters the keyhole of the weld and is reflected back into the head optics by the bottom of the keyhole. An interference pattern is produced by combining the reflected light with a separate beam that has traveled through a path of a known distance. This interference pattern is then analyzed to obtain a precise measurement of the depth of the keyhole. Because these measurements are acquired in real-time, ICI can also be used to control the laser penetration depth by using the depth measurement in a feedback loop that modulates the laser's output power.

Transient thermal analysis method

Transient thermal analysis is used for range of weld optimization tasks. http://www.ansys.net/ansys/papers/ARTICLE1.pdf ''Transient Thermal Analysis of Spot Welding Electrodes'' by K.S. Yeung and P.H. Thorton January 1999 Supplement to the ''Welding Journal'', American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council

''Signature image processing'' method

Signature image processing (SIP) is a technology for analyzing electrical data collected from welding processes. Acceptable welding requires exact conditions; variations in conditions can render a weld unacceptable. SIP allows the identification of welding faults in real time, measures the stability of welding processes, and enables the optimization of welding processes.

Development

The idea of using electrical data analyzed by algorithms to assess the quality of the welds produced in robotic manufacturing emerged in 1995 from research by Associate Professor Stephen Simpson at the

University of Sydney The University of Sydney (USYD) is a public university, public research university in Sydney, Australia. Founded in 1850, it is the oldest university in both Australia and Oceania. One of Australia's six sandstone universities, it was one of the ...

on the complex physical phenomena that occur in welding arcs. Simpson realized that a way of determining the quality of a weld could be developed without a definitive understanding of those phenomena. The development involved: # a method for handling sampled data blocks by treating them as phase-space portrait signatures with appropriate image processing. Typically, one second's worth of sampled welding voltage and current data are collected from GMAW pulse or short

arc welding Arc welding is a welding process that is used to join metal to metal by using electricity to create enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals, when cool, result in a joining of the metals. It is a type of welding that uses a welding power ...

processes. The data is converted to a 2D histogram, and signal-processing operations such as image smoothing are performed. # a technique for analyzing welding signatures based on statistical methods from the social sciences, such as

principal component analysis Principal component analysis (PCA) is a linear dimensionality reduction technique with applications in exploratory data analysis, visualization and data preprocessing. The data is linearly transformed onto a new coordinate system such that th ...

. The relationship between the welding voltage and the current reflects the state of the welding process, and the signature image includes this information. Comparing signatures quantitatively using principal component analysis allows for the spread of signature images, enabling faults to be detectedSimpson, SW (2007) "Statistics of signature images for arc welding fault detection", ''Science & Technology of Welding and Joining'', 12(6), 557–64 and identified The system includes algorithms and mathematics appropriate for real-time welding analysis on personal computers, and the multidimensional optimization of fault-detection performance using experimental welding data. Comparing signature images from moment to moment in a weld provides a useful estimate of how stable the welding process is. "Through-the-arc" sensing, by comparing signature images when the physical parameters of the process change, leads to quantitative estimates—for example, of the position of the weld bead. Unlike systems that log information for later study or use X-rays or ultrasound to check samples, SIP technology looks at the electrical signal and detects faults when they occur. Data blocks of 4,000 points of electrical data are collected four times a second and converted to signature images. After image processing operations, statistical analyses of the signatures provide a quantitative assessment of the welding process, revealing its stability and reproducibility and providing fault detection and process diagnostics. A similar approach, using voltage-current histograms and a simplified statistical measure of distance between signature images, has been evaluated for tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding by researchers from Osaka University.

Industrial application

SIP provides the basis for the ''WeldPrint'' system, which consists of a front-end interface and software based on the SIP engine and relies on electrical signals alone. It is designed to be non-intrusive and sufficiently robust to withstand harsh industrial welding environments. The first major purchaser of the technology,

GM Holden Holden, formerly known as General Motors-Holden, was an Australian subsidiary company of General Motors. Founded in Adelaide, it was an automobile manufacturer, importer, and exporter that sold cars under its own marque in Australia. It wa ...

provided feedback that allowed the system to be refined in ways that increased its industrial and commercial value. Improvements in the algorithms, including multiple parameter optimization with a server network, have led to an order-of-magnitude improvement in fault-detection performance over the past five years. ''WeldPrint'' for arc welding became available in mid-2001. About 70 units have been deployed since 2001, about 90% used on the shop floors of automotive manufacturing companies and their suppliers. Industrial users include Lear (UK), Unidrive, GM Holden,

Air International ''AIR International'' is a British aviation magazine covering current defence aerospace and civil aviation topics. It has been in publication since 1971 and is currently published by Key Publishing Ltd. History and profile The magazine was fir ...

and QTB Automotive (Australia). Units have been leased to Australian companies such as Rheem, Dux, and OneSteel for welding evaluation and process improvement. The ''WeldPrint'' software received the ''Brother business software of the year award'' (2001); in 2003, the technology received the A$100,000 inaugural ''Australasian Peter Doherty Prize for Innovation'';* and WTi, the University of Sydney's original spin-off company, received an AusIndustry Certificate of Achievement in recognition of the development. SIP has opened opportunities for researchers to use it as a measurement tool both in welding and in related disciplines, such as structural engineering. Research opportunities have opened up in the application of biomonitoring of external EEGs, where SIP offers advantages in interpreting the complex signals"Car plant technology has medical spin-off", ''UniNews'', USyd, 34(1), 1 (2002)

Weld mapping

Weld mapping is the process of assigning information to a weld repair or joint to enable easy identification of weld processes, production (welders, their qualifications, date welded), quality (visual inspection, NDT, standards and specifications) and traceability (tracking weld joints and welded castings, the origin of weld materials). Weld mapping should also incorporate a pictorial identification to represent the weld number on the fabrication drawing or casting repair. Military, nuclear and commercial industries possess unique quality standards (eg.,

ISO The International Organization for Standardization (ISO ; ; ) is an independent, non-governmental, international standard development organization composed of representatives from the national standards organizations of member countries. Me ...

, CEN,

ASME The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) is an American professional association that, in its own words, "promotes the art, science, and practice of multidisciplinary engineering and allied sciences around the globe" via "continuing edu ...

ASTM ASTM International, formerly known as American Society for Testing and Materials, is a standards organization that develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical international standards for a wide range of materials, products, systems and s ...

, AWS, NAVSEA) which direct weld mapping procedures and specifications, both in

metal casting In metalworking and jewelry making, casting is a process in which a liquid metal is delivered into a mold (usually by a crucible) that contains a negative impression (i.e., a three-dimensional negative image) of the intended shape. The metal is ...

in which defects are removed and filled in via GTAW (TIG welding) or SMAW (stick welding) processes, or

fabrication Fabrication may refer to: * Manufacturing, specifically the crafting of individual parts as a solo product or as part of a larger combined product. Processes in arts, crafts and manufacturing *Semiconductor device fabrication, the process used t ...

of weld joints which primarily involves GMAW (MIG welding).