Water Supply And Sanitation In Hong Kong
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Water supply and sanitation in Hong Kong is characterized by water import, reservoirs, and treatment infrastructure. Though multiple measures were made throughout its history, providing an adequate
water supply Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes. Public water supply systems are crucial to properly functioning societies. Th ...
for Hong Kong has met with numerous challenges because the region has few natural lakes and rivers, inadequate
groundwater Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and Pore space in soil, soil pore spaces and in the fractures of stratum, rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available fresh water in the world is groundwater. A unit ...
sources (inaccessible in most cases due to the hard
granite Granite ( ) is a coarse-grained (phanerite, phaneritic) intrusive rock, intrusive igneous rock composed mostly of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase. It forms from magma with a high content of silica and alkali metal oxides that slowly coo ...
bedrock In geology, bedrock is solid rock that lies under loose material ( regolith) within the crust of Earth or another terrestrial planet. Definition Bedrock is the solid rock that underlies looser surface material. An exposed portion of bed ...
found in most areas in the territory), a high population density, and extreme seasonable variations in rainfall. Thus nearly 80 percent of water demand is met by importing water from mainland China, based on a longstanding contract. In addition, freshwater demand is curtailed by the use of seawater for toilet flushing, using a separate distribution system. Hong Kong also uses reservoirs and water treatment plants to maintain its source of clean water.


History


Water rationing

Until 1964 water rationing - the act of limiting water usage for each household by water providers - was a constant reality for Hong Kong residents, occurring more than 300 days per year. The worst crisis occurred in 1963–64 when water was delivered only every 4 days for 4 hours each time. The territory, which was under the British colonial administration, then embarked on a three-pronged approach to supply water to an increasing population. (Hong Kong's population increased from 1.7 million in 1945 to about 6 million in 1992.) The strategy involved flushing toilets with seawater, the construction of larger freshwater reservoirs in bays that used to be covered by the sea, and water imports from mainland China.


Seawater flushing

In 1955 seawater was first used to flush toilets in a pilot scheme. This was followed by the installation of seawater flushing systems in all new houses and in selected districts beginning in 1957. In 1960 legislation was introduced to promote seawater flushing on a larger scale, followed by substantial investments in a separate network. However, the system was unpopular due to the need to build a separate plumbing network in each house. Seawater initially was sold, but from 1972 on it was provided for free and the costs of the system were recovered through the drinking
water tariff A water tariff (often called ''water rate'' in the United States and Canada) is a price assigned to water supplied by a public utility through a piped network to its customers. The term is also often applied to wastewater tariffs. Water and wastewat ...
. In 1991, about 65 percent of Hong Kong's households used seawater for flushing. By 1999, the number of conforming households had increased to 79 percent.


Freshwater reservoirs in the sea

In 1957 construction began on the first dam that would close off a natural sea bay and create the
Shek Pik Reservoir Shek Pik Reservoir () is a reservoir in Shek Pik on Lantau Island in Hong Kong. Built between 1957 and 1963, it has a storage capacity of 24 million cubic metres and is the third largest reservoir in Hong Kong after High Island Reservoir and P ...
. The reservoir was built to store freshwater that previously had been "lost to the sea" during the rainy season. The reservoir was completed in 1963. The completion of the Shek Pik reservoir was followed by the construction of two larger reservoirs of the same type. After the
Plover Cove Reservoir Plover Cove Reservoir, located within Plover Cove Country Park, in the northeastern New Territories, is the largest reservoir (water), reservoir in Hong Kong in terms of area, and the second-largest in terms of volume. It is the world's first ...
was completed in 1968, water rationing was discontinued until 1977. With the completion of the High Island Reservoir in 1978, continuous water supply was re-established. Water rationing was renewed for the last time in 1980–81. Between 1965 and 1982 water had to be rationed seven times, often for many months with interruptions of up to 16 hours per day. To maintain Hong Kong's competitiveness, rationing was imposed only on residential users. Industry, the city's main water user, was exempted from rationing. The need for rationing was finally overcome in 1982 thanks to water imports.


Water imports

In 1960 Hong Kong began importing water from outside its borders through the Dongjiang – Shenzhen (Dongshen) Water Supply Scheme. After many extensions and upgrades, the current system consists of a pipeline from Qiaotou Town of Dongguan to a reservoir in Shenzhen next to Hong Kong. Water imports from the
Pearl River The Pearl River (, or ) is an extensive river system in southern China. "Pearl River" is often also used as a catch-all for the watersheds of the Pearl tributaries within Guangdong, specifically the Xi ('west'), Bei ('north'), and Dong ( ...
have increased gradually from 23 million cubic meters per year (under a 1960 agreement) to 1100 million cubic meters per year (under a fifth agreement signed in 1989). Water imports thus played a crucial role in alleviating Hong Kong's water crisis, accounting for 70 percent of the territory's water supply in 1991. The People's Republic of China has never exercised the "water weapon" in its relationship with Hong Kong. China needed foreign exchange and between 1979 and 1991 alone Hong Kong paid China almost 4 billion Hong Kong Dollars (about US$500 million applying the 1991 exchange rate) for water imports.


Desalination

Desalination Desalination is a process that removes mineral components from saline water. More generally, desalination is the removal of salts and minerals from a substance. One example is Soil salinity control, soil desalination. This is important for agric ...
was a source of water in Hong Kong between 1975 and 1981. A large desalination plant was commissioned in Lok On Pai in 1975, but was decommissioned again in 1981 because its operation was more expensive than importing water from
Dongjiang The Dong River is the easternmost main tributary of the Pearl River, flowing through Guangdong and Jiangxi in southern China. It's source is Mount Yajibo in Xunwu County in Jiangxi. Since 1960, water from the Dong has also been exported ...
. Another pilot desalination plant utilized reverse osmosis in Tuen Mun in Hong Kong during the year of 2004, but this plant lasted only one year. This plant was made as an experiment to evaluate the efficiency of reverse osmosis. Construction of the Tseung Kwan O Desalination Plant began in 2019, and it began supplying water to the public in 2023. It utilizes reverse osmosis and is projected to meet 5-10% of fresh water demand. Desalination is an intriguing topic that would definitely increase the rate at which clean water can be supplied as well as help prevent the overuse of water pipes for transportation, but it is an expensive process that currently does not yield too many benefits.


Protecting raw water quality

The pollution of raw water supplied to Hong Kong became an increasing concern that triggered a variety of activities designed to protect the quality of raw water. In 1998 the intake of the water pipeline was moved further upstream on the Dongjiang River where water quality was better. In 2003 an 83 km dedicated aqueduct was completed, thus reducing the vulnerability of the supply to pollution. Additionally,
wastewater treatment Wastewater treatment is a process which removes and eliminates contaminants from wastewater. It thus converts it into an effluent that can be returned to the water cycle. Once back in the water cycle, the effluent creates an acceptable impact on ...
plants were constructed in settlements in the Dongjiang basin and polluting industries were removed, thus protecting the water at the source. In 2006 a Water Supply Agreement was signed with
Guangdong Province ) means "wide" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in AD 226. The name "''Guang''" ultimately came from Guangxin ( zh, labels=no, first=t, t= , s=广信), an outpost established in Han dynasty ...
for a "flexible" supply of Dongjiang water. The agreement allows for less water to be withdrawn when reservoirs in Hong Kong are full, and more water to be withdrawn in times of drought, while the annual payment remains the same. Under the new agreement, Hong Kong paid fixed lump sums of HK$2,959 million, HK$3,146 million and HK$3,344 million for 2009, 2010 and 2011 respectively.


Total water management

In 2003 the government of Hong Kong announced what it called a "total water management programme". In 2005 a study was commissioned and the results were broadly discussed. Based on the study the government reaffirmed its approach to water management, but also started new initiatives concerning leakage reduction, water conservation,
greywater Greywater (or grey water, sullage, also spelled gray water in the United States) refers to domestic wastewater generated in households or office buildings from streams without fecal contamination, i.e., all streams except for the wastewater fro ...
reuse,
rainwater harvesting Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is the collection and storage of rain, rather than allowing it to run off. Rainwater is collected from a roof-like surface and redirected to a Rainwater tank, tank, cistern, deep pit (well, shaft, or borehole), Aquifer s ...
, as well as pilots for the reuse of
reclaimed water Water reclamation is the process of converting Sewage, municipal wastewater or sewage and Industrial wastewater treatment, industrial wastewater into water that can be reused for a variety of purposes. It is also called wastewater reuse, water re ...
and
desalination Desalination is a process that removes mineral components from saline water. More generally, desalination is the removal of salts and minerals from a substance. One example is Soil salinity control, soil desalination. This is important for agric ...
. For example, the government plans to provide reclaimed water from Shek Wu Hui Sewage Treatment Works for consumers in
Sheung Shui Sheung Shui (, literally "Above-water") is an area in the New Territories, Hong Kong. Sheung Shui Town, a part of this area, is part of the Fanling–Sheung Shui New Town in the North District, Hong Kong, North District of Hong Kong. Fanli ...
and
Fanling Fanling ( zh, t=粉嶺; also spelled Fan Ling or Fan Leng) is a town in the New Territories East of Hong Kong. Administratively, it is part of the North District. Fanling Town is the main settlement of the Fanling area. The name Fanling is ...
for toilet flushing and other non-potable uses, as well as pilot desalination plants in
Tuen Mun Tuen Mun () or Castle Peak is an area near the mouth of Tuen Mun River and Castle Peak Bay in the New Territories, Hong Kong. It was one of the earliest settlements in what is now Hong Kong and can be dated to the Neolithic period. In the mo ...
and
Ap Lei Chau Ap Lei Chau or Aberdeen Island is an island of Hong Kong, located off Hong Kong Island next to Aberdeen Harbour and Aberdeen Channel. It has an area of after land reclamation. Administratively it is part of the Southern District. Ap Lei ...
.


Desalination comeback

Because the price of imported water increased from $1 to $3 per cubic meter, the Hong Kong authorities announced in 2011 that the government would build a 50,000 cubic metre per day seawater desalination plant. The plant will allow greater resiliency against droughts that may become more severe due to climate change.


Sources of water

Hong Kong's three main sources of water are supplied from
Guangdong Province ) means "wide" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in AD 226. The name "''Guang''" ultimately came from Guangxin ( zh, labels=no, first=t, t= , s=广信), an outpost established in Han dynasty ...
; internal freshwater sources stored in reservoirs; and seawater used for flushing toilets.
Dongjiang The Dong River is the easternmost main tributary of the Pearl River, flowing through Guangdong and Jiangxi in southern China. It's source is Mount Yajibo in Xunwu County in Jiangxi. Since 1960, water from the Dong has also been exported ...
is Hong Kong's major source of water. The designed maximum capacity of the supply system is 1.1 billion cubic metres per annum. The supply contract, costing HK$2 billion a year, has helped the city's economy grow without the interruption caused by water shortages, although the payment constitutes only 0.15 percent of Hong Kong's HK$1.3 trillion gross domestic product. About one-third of Hong Kong's 1,098 square kilometers has been developed as water catchments including reservoirs behind dams on land and three 'reservoirs in the sea', the
Shek Pik Reservoir Shek Pik Reservoir () is a reservoir in Shek Pik on Lantau Island in Hong Kong. Built between 1957 and 1963, it has a storage capacity of 24 million cubic metres and is the third largest reservoir in Hong Kong after High Island Reservoir and P ...
, the
Plover Cove Reservoir Plover Cove Reservoir, located within Plover Cove Country Park, in the northeastern New Territories, is the largest reservoir (water), reservoir in Hong Kong in terms of area, and the second-largest in terms of volume. It is the world's first ...
and the High Island Reservoir. An interesting facet of the waterworks is the seawater supply system with its separate networks of distribution mains, treatment facilities for screening and disinfection, pumping stations, and service reservoirs. Eighty percent of the population, including nearly all housing estates in
Hong Kong Island Hong Kong Island () is an island in the southern part of Hong Kong. The island, known originally and on road signs simply as "Hong Kong", had a population of 1,289,500 and a population density of , . It is the second largest island in Hong Kon ...
and other densely populated districts, receive sea water for flushing. Some remote districts in the New Territories and some outlying islands do not use the system. In 2010, an average of about 740,000 cubic meters of seawater was supplied each day, up from 330,000 cubic meters each day in 1990/91. Seawater is used to flush toilets and accounted for about 22 percent of total water use in 2008–09.


Consumption

In the 1990s, more than 70 percent of Hong Kong's water was used by industry and services, particularly the textile, metal-working and electronics sectors in manufacturing, hotels and restaurants in services. All figures are in million cubic metres


Water infrastructure

Hong Kong's water infrastructure consists of the following water treatment plants, pumping stations and reservoirs.


Water treatment

The supply is fully treated by chemical coagulation,
sedimentation Sedimentation is the deposition of sediments. It takes place when particles in suspension settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to th ...
(at most treatment works),
filtration Filtration is a physical separation process that separates solid matter and fluid from a mixture using a ''filter medium'' that has a complex structure through which only the fluid can pass. Solid particles that cannot pass through the filte ...
, pH value correction, chlorination and
fluoridation Water fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to public water supplies to reduce tooth decay. Fluoridated water maintains fluoride levels effective for cavity prevention, achieved naturally or through supplementation. In the mou ...
. The water is soft in character and conforms in all respects – both chemically and bacteriologically – to standards for
drinking water Drinking water or potable water is water that is safe for ingestion, either when drunk directly in liquid form or consumed indirectly through food preparation. It is often (but not always) supplied through taps, in which case it is also calle ...
set by the
World Health Organization The World Health Organization (WHO) is a list of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations which coordinates responses to international public health issues and emergencies. It is headquartered in Gen ...
. Residents often prefer to boil the water before drinking, but this is generally not necessary. The main water treatment plants are: *Sha Tin Water Treatment Works, the largest water treatment works in Hong Kong in terms of daily output capacity *Pak Kong *Au Tau *Tsuen Wan *Tuen Mun *Tai Po *Yau Kom Tau *Ma On Shan *Ngau Tam Mei


Pumping Stations

* Muk Wu No.2 & No. 3 * Tai Po Tau, Tai Po Tau No.2, No.3 & No.4 * Tai Mei Tuk & Tai Mei Tuk No.2 * Harbour Island


Reservoirs

The total storage capacity of Hong Kong's reservoirs is 586 million cubic meters. The reservoirs and their storage capacities are tabulated below:


Sanitation

There are a total of 68 sewage treatment facilities in Hong Kong, including 41 in Hong Kong Island, Kowloon and Outlying Islands and 27 in the New Territories. One of the largest facilities is the
Sha Tin Sewage Treatment Works Sha Tin Sewage Treatment Works () is a sewage treatment facility in Hong Kong. It is located in Ma Liu Shui, Sha Tin, along the Shing Mun River, at its mouth into Sha Tin Hoi (Tide Cove). The treatment works serves Sha Tin, Ma On Shan (town), M ...
covering an area of 28 hectares. It was commissioned in three stages in 1982, 1986 and 2004.


Institutional framework

The
Water Supplies Department The Water Supplies Department (WSD; ) is the department under the Development Bureau of the Government of Hong Kong of the People's Republic of China providing a Water supply and sanitation in Hong Kong, reliable and adequate supply of wholeso ...
collects, stores, purifies and distributes potable water to consumers, and provides adequate new resources and installations to maintain a satisfactory standard of water supply. The department also supplies
seawater Seawater, or sea water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 35 ppt, 600 mM). This means that every kilogram (roughly one liter by volume) of seawater has approximat ...
for flushing toilets. The
Drainage Services Department The Drainage Services Department (DSD) is a department of the Hong Kong Government responsible for drainage and sewerage. Since 2007 it has been subordinate to the Development Bureau. Responsibilities The department is responsible for stormw ...
is responsible for sanitation.


See also

*
Water supply and sanitation in China Water supply and sanitation in China is undergoing a massive transition while facing numerous challenges, such as rapid urbanization, increasing economic inequality, and the supply of water to rural areas. Water scarcity and pollution also imp ...
*
Sha Tin Sewage Treatment Works Sha Tin Sewage Treatment Works () is a sewage treatment facility in Hong Kong. It is located in Ma Liu Shui, Sha Tin, along the Shing Mun River, at its mouth into Sha Tin Hoi (Tide Cove). The treatment works serves Sha Tin, Ma On Shan (town), M ...
* Engineer's Office of the Former Pumping Station (historical building) *
Water Supplies Department The Water Supplies Department (WSD; ) is the department under the Development Bureau of the Government of Hong Kong of the People's Republic of China providing a Water supply and sanitation in Hong Kong, reliable and adequate supply of wholeso ...
*
Drainage Services Department The Drainage Services Department (DSD) is a department of the Hong Kong Government responsible for drainage and sewerage. Since 2007 it has been subordinate to the Development Bureau. Responsibilities The department is responsible for stormw ...


References


External links


Hong Kong Water Supplies Department

Drainage Services Department


{{Water supply and sanitation by country