W.I.T.C.H., originally the acronym for Women's International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell, was the name of several related but independent

feminist Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideology, ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social gender equality, equality of the sexes. Feminism holds the position that modern soci ...

groups active in the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

as part of the

women's liberation movement The women's liberation movement (WLM) was a political alignment of women and feminist intellectualism. It emerged in the late 1960s and continued till the 1980s, primarily in the industrialized nations of the Western world, which resulted in g ...

during the late 1960s. The W.I.T.C.H. moniker was sometimes alternatively expanded as "Women Inspired to Tell their Collective History", or "Women Interested in Toppling Consumer Holidays", among other variations. The first W.I.T.C.H. group was established in

New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...

in October 1968. Its founders were

socialist feminists Socialism is an economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes the economic, political, and social ...

who had formerly been members of the

New York Radical Women New York Radical Women (NYRW) was an early second-wave radical feminist group that existed from 1967 to 1969. They drew nationwide media attention when they unfurled a banner inside the 1968 Miss America pageant displaying the words "Women ...

group. They opposed the idea advocated by

radical feminists Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls for a Political radicalism, radical re-ordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts, while recognizing that women's experiences are al ...

that feminist women should campaign against "

patriarchy Patriarchy is a social system in which positions of authority are primarily held by men. The term ''patriarchy'' is used both in anthropology to describe a family or clan controlled by the father or eldest male or group of males, and in fem ...

" alone. Instead W.I.T.C.H. advocated for feminists to ally with a range of left-wing causes, to bring about wider social change in the United States. Various scholars have suggested that in embracing the iconography of the

witch Witchcraft is the use of magic by a person called a witch. Traditionally, "witchcraft" means the use of magic to inflict supernatural harm or misfortune on others, and this remains the most common and widespread meaning. According to ''Enc ...

, and with the

witch trials in the early modern period In the early modern period, from about 1400 to 1775, about 100,000 people were prosecuted for witchcraft in Europe and British America. Between 40,000 and 60,000 were executed, almost all in Europe. The witch-hunts were particularly severe in pa ...

, W.I.T.C.H. represented forerunners of various forms of feminist-oriented

modern Paganism Modern paganism, also known as contemporary paganism and neopaganism, spans a range of new religious movements variously influenced by the Paganism, beliefs of pre-modern peoples across Europe, North Africa, and the Near East. Despite some comm ...

such as

Dianic Wicca Dianic Wicca, also known as Dianic Witchcraft, and, to some also as "Dianism," "Dianic Feminist Witchcraft," or simply "Feminist Witchcraft"' is a modern pagan goddess tradition focused on female experience and empowerment. Leadership is by wo ...

Founding

Within the

of the United States during the 1960s, there was a division between the "politicos" and the "

". The politicos were

and attributed the oppression of women to

capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...

, seeking to ally with other leftist causes – such as the

New Left The New Left was a broad political movement that emerged from the counterculture of the 1960s and continued through the 1970s. It consisted of activists in the Western world who, in reaction to the era's liberal establishment, campaigned for freer ...

, black liberation movement,

student movement Student activism or campus activism is work by students to cause political, environmental, economic, or social change. In addition to education, student groups often play central roles in democratization and winning civil rights. Modern stu ...

, and

anti-war movement An anti-war movement is a social movement in opposition to one or more nations' decision to start or carry on an armed conflict. The term ''anti-war'' can also refer to pacifism, which is the opposition to all use of military force during con ...

– in a wider socio-political movement to bring about revolutionary change. Conversely, the radical feminists did not view women's oppression as a symptom of capitalism and wanted women's liberation to remain independent of the wider leftist movement. W.I.T.C.H. was formed when the

(NYRW) split in 1969. The group's main founder was

Youth International Party The Youth International Party (YIP), whose members were commonly called Yippies, was an American youth-oriented radical and countercultural revolutionary offshoot of the free speech and anti-war movements of the late 1960s. It was founded on D ...

co-founder

Nancy Kurshan Nancy Sarah Kurshan (born February 4, 1944, in Brooklyn, NY) is an American activist, raised as a " red diaper baby", and best known for being a founder of the Youth International Party (whose members were popularly known as Yippies). Early li ...

. Several politicos within the NYRW, most notable

Robin Morgan Robin Morgan (born January 29, 1941) is an American poet, writer, activist, journalist, lecturer and former child actor. Since the early 1960s, she has been a key Radical feminism, radical feminist member of the American Feminist movement, Wom ...

and

Florika Remetier Florika Remetier (February 28, 1946 – August 30, 1979) was a Romanian-American musician and socialist feminist political activist. A child prodigy violinist, she would later join the New York Radical Women (NYRW) and co-founded the feminist guer ...

, were inspired by the actions of the

, or "Yippies", which had been founded in December 1967 and which sought to promote its message by shocking and offending mainstream American sensibilities. Morgan, Roz Payne and Sharon Krebs co-founded the group with Kurshan. Other NYRW members, such as

Kathie Sarachild Kathie Sarachild (born Kathie Amatniek; July 1943) is an American writer and radical feminist. In 1968, she took the last name "Sarachild" after her mother Sara. Kathie coined the phrase "Sisterhood is Powerful" in a flier she wrote for the keyn ...

and

Carol Hanisch Carol Hanisch (born 1942) is an American radical feminist activist. She was an important member of New York Radical Women and Redstockings. She is best known for popularizing the phrase " the personal is political" in a 1970 essay of the same ...

disagreed, believing in the need to continue

consciousness raising Consciousness raising (also called awareness raising) is a form of activism popularized by United States feminists in the late 1960s. It often takes the form of a group of people attempting to focus the attention of a wider group on some cause or ...

and disliking the idea of adopting deliberate shock tactics. A number of these NYRW politicos then established W.I.T.C.H.; among those involved were Morgan, Florika, Peggy Dobbins, Judy Duffett, Cynthia Funk, and

Naomi Jaffe Naomi Esther Jaffe (born June 1943) is an American activist and feminist. She is former undergraduate student of Herbert Marcuse and member of the Weather Underground Organization. Jaffe was recently the Executive Director of Holding Our Own, a m ...

. Unverified claims have been made that the establishment of W.I.T.C.H. was inspired by the decision of the

House Un-American Activities Committee The House Committee on Un-American Activities (HCUA), popularly the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), was an investigative United States Congressional committee, committee of the United States House of Representatives, created in 19 ...

(HUAC) to hold hearings investigating alleged communist involvement in demonstrations against the 1968 Democratic National Convention. The women who established W.I.T.C.H. were angry that while a number of male radicals were subpoenaed by HUAC, the female activists had not been. The group was established in New York on

Halloween Halloween, or Hallowe'en (less commonly known as Allhalloween, All Hallows' Eve, or All Saints' Eve), is a celebration geography of Halloween, observed in many countries on 31 October, the eve of the Western Christianity, Western Christian f ...

1968, at which point they adopted the name "Women's International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell" and its acronym, W.I.T.C.H. The group changed their name to suit their purposes, albeit retaining the fixed letters of W.I.T.C.H. For instance, during a demonstration against the

Bell Telephone company The Bell Telephone Company was the initial corporate entity from which the Bell System originated to build a continental conglomerate and monopoly in telecommunication services in the United States and Canada. The company was organized in Bost ...

, the group used "Women Incensed at Telephone Company Harassment". Other examples included "Women Infuriated at Taking Care of Hoodlums" and "Women Indentured to Traveler's Corporate Hell".

Activism

W.I.T.C.H. were devoted to overthrowing the

patriarchal Patriarchy is a social system in which positions of authority are primarily held by men. The term ''patriarchy'' is used both in anthropology to describe a family or clan controlled by the father or eldest male or group of males, and in fem ...

dominance of society, and according to the scholar

Cynthia Eller ''The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory: Why An Invented Past Will Not Give Women a Future'' is a 2000 book by Cynthia Eller that seeks to deconstruct the theory of a prehistoric matriarchy. This hypothesis, she says, developed in 19th century schol ...

, they chose to do so in "witty, flamboyant, and theatrical ways" by carrying out witch-themed political stunts. The group's inaugural action took place on

1968, as W.I.T.C.H. members dressed as witches and marched down

Wall Street Wall Street is a street in the Financial District, Manhattan, Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. It runs eight city blocks between Broadway (Manhattan), Broadway in the west and South Street (Manhattan), South Str ...

in order to place a "

hex Hex usually refers to: * A curse or supposed real and potentially supernaturally realized malicious wish * Hexadecimal, a base-16 number system often used in computer nomenclature Hex, HEX, or The Hex may also refer to: Magic * Hex sign, a b ...

" on New York's

financial district A financial district is usually a central area in a city where financial services firms such as banks, insurance companies, and other related finance corporations have their headquarters offices. In major cities, financial districts often host ...

. This event was documented by Bev Grant's photographs. Morgan stated that the

Dow Jones Industrial Average The Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA), Dow Jones, or simply the Dow (), is a stock market index of 30 prominent companies listed on stock exchanges in the United States. The DJIA is one of the oldest and most commonly followed equity indice ...

declined sharply the next day. She also noted that this action emphasized the working-class struggle against capitalism more than the feminist struggle. Subsequent acts of protest conducted by W.I.T.C.H. placed a greater focus on women's issues. The Chicago group staged protests in Chicago after hearing about New York City Actions, including actions at

Chicago Board of Trade The Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT), is an American futures exchange, futures and options exchange that was founded in 1848. On July 12, 2007, the CBOT merged with the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) to form CME Group. CBOT and three other excha ...

, the

American Medical Association The American Medical Association (AMA) is an American professional association and lobbying group of physicians and medical students. This medical association was founded in 1847 and is headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. Membership was 271,660 ...

's annual conference, and the University of Chicago. In one instance, the group's New York City members entered the legendary restaurant of the era

Max's Kansas City Max's Kansas City was a nightclub and restaurant at 213 Park Avenue South in New York City, which became a gathering spot for musicians, poets, artists, and politicians in the 1960s and 1970s. It was opened by Mickey Ruskin (1933–1983) in Dece ...

, where they distributed garlic cloves and cards on which were written the motto: "We Are W.I.T.C.H. We Are Women. We Are Liberation. We Are We." At the same time they chanted "Nine Million Women! Burned as Witches!" and questioned the women diners on why they were willing to have a man buy them dinner. In January 1969, a counter-inaugural protest was organized by various feminist groups, taking place in

Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly known as Washington or D.C., is the capital city and federal district of the United States. The city is on the Potomac River, across from Virginia, and shares land borders with ...

, to demonstrate against the inauguration of

Richard Nixon Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913April 22, 1994) was the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 until Resignation of Richard Nixon, his resignation in 1974. A member of the Republican Party (United States), Republican ...

President of the United States The president of the United States (POTUS) is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the Federal government of the United States#Executive branch, executive branch of the Federal government of t ...

. W.I.T.C.H. members arrived from New York, appropriating some of the

New York Radical Feminists New York Radical Feminists (NYRF) was a radical feminist group founded by Shulamith Firestone and Anne Koedt in 1969, after they had left Redstockings and The Feminists, respectively. Firestone's and Koedt's desire to start this new group was a ...

' banners – which were emblazoned with the declaration of "Feminism Lives" – and replacing it with "W.I.T.C.H." in crayon. Rumors circulated at the protest that W.I.T.C.H. members had planned to pull the radical feminist speaker

Shulamith Firestone Shulamith Bath Shmuel Ben Ari Firestone (born Feuerstein; January 7, 1945 – August 28, 2012) was a Canadian-American radical feminist writer and activist. She was a prominent figure in the early development of radical feminism and second-wave ...

down from the podium when she had been planned to speak; they disagreed with her vocal criticism of those men who were involved in the leftist movement. After the protest, W.I.T.C.H. members subsequently sent a letter to ''

the Guardian ''The Guardian'' is a British daily newspaper. It was founded in Manchester in 1821 as ''The Manchester Guardian'' and changed its name in 1959, followed by a move to London. Along with its sister paper, ''The Guardian Weekly'', ''The Guardi ...

'' repudiating Firestone's calls for women's liberation groups to divorce themselves from the wider left-leaning social movement in U.S. society. In this letter, it described women's liberation as "part of a general struggle; we are as essential to the movement as it is to us". It further reprimanded Firestone for her vocal attacks of men who were part of the movement, stating that "directing ourselves against men ... only reinforces the oppressive pattern of women defining themselves through men". In February 1969, W.I.T.C.H. members held a protest at a bridal fair at

Madison Square Garden Madison Square Garden, colloquially known as the Garden or by its initials MSG, is a multi-purpose indoor arena in New York City. It is located in Midtown Manhattan between Seventh Avenue (Manhattan), Seventh and Eighth Avenue (Manhattan), Eig ...

. Wearing black veils, they chanted "here comes the slaves/off to their graves", and posted stickers around the area emblazoned with the statement, "confront the whoremakers", a pun on the common

anti-war An anti-war movement is a social movement in opposition to one or more nations' decision to start or carry on an armed conflict. The term ''anti-war'' can also refer to pacifism, which is the opposition to all use of military force during conf ...

slogan, "confront the warmongers". The protests also involved turning loose several white mice at the event, which fair attendees began scooping up off the ground. Radical feminists criticized W.I.T.C.H. members for reinforcing the

sexist Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but primarily affects women and girls. It has been linked to gender roles and stereotypes, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is int ...

stereotype that the assembled women would be scared of mice. They also condemned what they understood as W.I.T.C.H.'s approach of promoting a message of "we're liberated and you're not" to other women, believing that in doing so they were distancing and alienating themselves from feminism's base constituency. Later historian Alice Echols expressed criticism over what she saw as W.I.T.C.H.'s "contempt" for those women who were not involved in broader leftist activism. The bridal fair event resulted in negative media coverage for W.I.T.C.H., and some dissension among members over goals and tactics. After the incident, W.I.T.C.H. moved away from the shock tactics that they had previously employed and instead focused their attention on

consciousness-raising Consciousness raising (also called awareness raising) is a form of activism popularized by United States feminists in the late 1960s. It often takes the form of a group of people attempting to focus the attention of a wider group on some cause or ...

. On August 10, 1969, a W.I.T.C.H. group, calling itself Women Incensed at Telephone Company Harassment, gathered at

St. Paul's Churchyard St Paul's Churchyard is an area immediately around St Paul's Cathedral in the City of London. Historically it included St Paul's Cross and Paternoster Row. It became one of the principal marketplaces in London. St Paul's Cross was an open-air p ...

in New York to protest working conditions at

AT&T AT&T Inc., an abbreviation for its predecessor's former name, the American Telephone and Telegraph Company, is an American multinational telecommunications holding company headquartered at Whitacre Tower in Downtown Dallas, Texas. It is the w ...

. Spin-off "

coven A coven () is a group or gathering of Witchcraft, witches. The word "coven" (from Anglo-Norman language, Anglo-Norman ''covent, cuvent'', from Old French ''covent'', from Latin ''conventum'' = convention) remained largely unused in English lan ...

s" were founded in

Chicago, Illinois Chicago is the List of municipalities in Illinois, most populous city in the U.S. state of Illinois and in the Midwestern United States. With a population of 2,746,388, as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, it is the List of Unite ...

, and

, and W.I.T.C.H. zaps continued until roughly the beginning of 1970. In 1969, a Chicago "coven" gathered in an action outside the

Chicago Transit Authority The Chicago Transit Authority (CTA) is the operator of public transport, mass transit in Chicago, Illinois, United States, and some of its suburbs, including the trains of the Chicago "L" and List of Chicago Transit Authority bus routes, CTA bu ...

headquarters to "hex" the CTA over a proposed transit hike, dancing and chanting. In another instance, W.I.T.C.H. members protested the firing of a radical feminist professor by entering the sociology department of the

University of Chicago The University of Chicago (UChicago, Chicago, or UChi) is a Private university, private research university in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Its main campus is in the Hyde Park, Chicago, Hyde Park neighborhood on Chicago's South Side, Chic ...

and leaving hair and nail clippings all over the building. In February 1970, the Washington coven held a protest during a Senate hearing on

population control Population control is the practice of artificially maintaining the size of any population. It simply refers to the act of limiting the size of an animal population so that it remains manageable, as opposed to the act of protecting a species from ...

. They interrupted Texas Senator

Ralph Yarborough Ralph Webster Yarborough (June 8, 1903 – January 27, 1996) was an American politician and lawyer. He was a Texas Democratic politician who served in the United States Senate from 1957 to 1971 and was a leader of the progressive wing of his p ...

's testimony by chanting and throwing pills at panel members and people in the audience galleries.

Understanding of witchcraft

In their leaflets, W.I.T.C.H. adopted the

witch-cult hypothesis The witch-cult hypothesis is a discredited theory that the Witch trials in the early modern period, witch trials of the Early Modern period were an attempt to suppress a Paganism, pagan religion that had survived the Christianization of Europe. A ...

by claiming that those persecuted as alleged witches in European history had been members of a surviving pre-Christian,

pagan Paganism (, later 'civilian') is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions other than Christianity, Judaism, and Samaritanism. In the time of the ...

religion which the Christian authorities then sought to suppress. In their manifesto, W.I.T.C.H. propagated the erroneous claim that nine million women had been burned to death during the

. This claim had originated with the first-wave feminist

Matilda Joslyn Gage Matilda Joslyn Gage ( Joslyn; March 24, 1826 – March 18, 1898) was an American writer and activist. She is mainly known for her contributions to women's suffrage in the United States, but also campaigned for Native American rights, aboli ...

. W.I.T.C.H. declared that any woman could become a W.I.T.C.H. by declaring herself to be one, and that moreover any group of women could form a witches'

. In one of their leaflets, it is stated that:

If you are a woman and dare to look within yourself, you are a W.I.T.C.H.. You make your own rules. You are free and beautiful. You can be invisible or evident in how you choose to make your W.I.T.C.H.-self known. You can form your own Coven of sister Witches (thirteen is a cozy number for a group) and do your own actions ... You are a W.I.T.C.H. by saying aloud, "I am a W.I.T.C.H." three times, and ''thinking about that''. You are a W.I.T.C.H. by being female, untamed, angry, joyous, and immortal.

Notable members

Members of W.I.T.C.H. included cofounder

, a child television star in the 1950s and a member of the

Yippies The Youth International Party (YIP), whose members were commonly called Yippies, was an American youth-oriented Radical politics, radical and Counterculture, countercultural revolutionary offshoot of the Free Speech Movement, free speech and an ...

in the late 1960s, who became an important feminist. Yippie co-founder

was also an early member, mentioned in the W.I.T.C.H. documents included in the 1970 anthology '' Sisterhood Is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings From The Women's Liberation Movement'', edited by Morgan. The ''

Oxford English Dictionary The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (''OED'') is the principal historical dictionary of the English language, published by Oxford University Press (OUP), a University of Oxford publishing house. The dictionary, which published its first editio ...

'' credits Morgan with using the term "

herstory Herstory is a term for history written from a feminist perspective and emphasizing the role of women, or told from a woman's point of view. It originated as an alteration of the word "history", as part of a feminist critique of conventional his ...

" in print in this anthology. Concerning W.I.T.C.H., Morgan wrote:

The fluidity and wit of the witches is evident in the ever-changing acronym: the basic, original title was Women's International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell ..and the latest heard at this writing is Women Inspired to Commit Herstory.

However, soon after the breakup of W.I.T.C.H., Morgan repudiated her New Left-aligned politics, and embraced a kind of radical feminism that was strongly opposed to "the male left". She later dismissed W.I.T.C.H. as a form of "clownish proto-anarchism" which had not "raised our own consciousness very far out of our own combat boots". Other notable members included Peggy Dobbins and

, who went on to join the

Weather Underground Organization The Weather Underground was a Far-left politics, far-left Marxist militant organization first active in 1969, founded on the Ann Arbor, Michigan, Ann Arbor campus of the University of Michigan. Originally known as the Weathermen, or simply Wea ...

Legacy

Writing in 1979, the journalist

Margot Adler Margot Susanna Adler (April 16, 1946 – July 28, 2014) was an American author, journalist, and lecturer. She worked as a correspondent for National Public Radio for 35 years, became bureau chief of the New York office, and could be heard frequen ...

expressed the view that while W.I.T.C.H. was considered to be "a fringe phenomenon" in the women's movement at the time of its founding, by the end of the seventies, its sentiments were embraced by a larger proportion of feminists, if still a minority within the feminist community. W.I.T.C.H. were a political rather than a religious or spiritual group, however several scholars of

Pagan studies Pagan studies is the multidisciplinary academic field devoted to the study of modern paganism, a broad assortment of modern religious movements, which are typically influenced by or claiming to be derived from the various pagan beliefs of premodern ...

have considered them to be partial precursors to the

ns, members of a feminist-oriented form of

Modern Paganism Modern paganism, also known as contemporary paganism and neopaganism, spans a range of new religious movements variously influenced by the Paganism, beliefs of pre-modern peoples across Europe, North Africa, and the Near East. Despite some comm ...

which developed in the United States during the 1970s. According to Adler, W.I.T.C.H.'s key assumptions about the nature of witchcraft and its connection to women's liberation continued as the "wellspring" of Dianic Wicca and other forms of feminist-oriented Paganism. Red W.I.T.C.H., a socialist spin-off of W.I.T.C.H, was created by teaching staff at

UC Berkeley The University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley, Berkeley, Cal, or California), is a public land-grant research university in Berkeley, California, United States. Founded in 1868 and named after the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkele ...

after they witnessed the W.I.T.C.H. actions in Chicago. Led by Laura X, Red W.I.T.C.H. responded to the patriarchal elements of socialist organization in the early 1960s, criticizing the contradictions between ideals of radical males and their behavior.

Revival

In 2015, the Chicago chapter was reestablished by three women. Their first action took place in November 2015. Later actions targeted the lack of

affordable housing Affordable housing is housing which is deemed affordable to those with a household income at or below the median, as rated by the national government or a local government by a recognized housing affordability index. Most of the literature on ...

abortion rights Abortion-rights movements, also self-styled as pro-choice movements, are movements that advocate for legal access to induced abortion services, including elective abortion. They seek to represent and support women who wish to terminate their p ...

and the Trump administration's condoning of racism and sexism. Members staged a ritual in the Logan Square neighborhood in 2015 to protest housing inequalities throughout the city. Participating members at this event included Jessica Caponigro, Chiara Galimberti, and Amaranta Isyemille Ramos. In 2017, the group's members from the W.I.T.C.H. Chicago Coven group of 2015-2017 intentionally pulled themselves out of the public eye to make space for the creation of an anonymous W.I.T.C.H. chapter in Chicago. They still promote the continuation of the practice of performing rituals to fight against inequality in all of its form. In response to the

2016 United States presidential election United States presidential election, Presidential elections were held in the United States on November 8, 2016. The Republican Party (United States), Republican ticket of businessman Donald Trump and Indiana Governor, Indiana governor Mike P ...

, protest groups formed in

Portland Portland most commonly refers to: *Portland, Oregon, the most populous city in the U.S. state of Oregon *Portland, Maine, the most populous city in the U.S. state of Maine *Isle of Portland, a tied island in the English Channel Portland may also r ...

and

Boston Boston is the capital and most populous city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. The city serves as the cultural and Financial centre, financial center of New England, a region of the Northeas ...

that named themselves after W.I.T.C.H. and took inspiration from their tactics.

References

Bibliography

* * * * *

External links

peggydobbins.net
{{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111080014/http://peggydobbins.net/ , date=2011-11-11

of W.I.T.C.H. actions by

Jo Freeman Jo Freeman aka Joreen (born August 26, 1945), is an American feminist, political scientist, writer and attorney. As a student at the University of California, Berkeley in the 1960s, she became active in organizations working for civil liberties a ...

"Women's International Terrorist Conspiracy From Hell"
in '' TeenVogue'', October 28, 2021. Feminist organizations in the United States Women's political advocacy groups in the United States Organizations established in 1968 Socialist feminist organizations in the United States American witchcraft Yippies Political theatre