Vibrio Parahaemolyticus

''Vibrio parahaemolyticus'' (V. parahaemolyticus) is a curved, rod-shaped, Gram-negative bacterial species found in the sea and in estuaries which, when ingested, may cause gastrointestinal illness in humans. ''V. parahaemolyticus'' is oxidase positive, facultatively aerobic, and does not form spores. Like other members of the genus '' Vibrio'', this species is motile, with a single, polar flagellum.

Pathogenesis

While infection can occur by the fecal-oral route, ingestion of bacteria in raw or undercooked seafood, usually oysters, is the predominant cause of the acute gastroenteritis caused by ''V. parahaemolyticus''. Wound infections also occur, but are less common than seafood-borne disease. The disease mechanism of ''V. parahaemolyticus'' infections has not been fully elucidated.

Clinical isolates usually possess a pathogenicity island (PAI) on the second chromosome. The PAI can be acquired by horizontal gene transfer and contains genes for several virulence factors. Two fully sequenced variants exist of the ''V. parahaemolyticus'' PAI with distinctly different lineages. Each PAI variant contains a genetically distinct Type III Secretion System (T3SS), which is capable of injecting virulence proteins into host cells to disrupt host cell functions or cause cell death by apoptosis. The two known T3SS variants on ''V. parahaemolyticus'' chromosome 2 are known as T3SS2α and T3SS2β. These variants correspond to the two known PAI variants.
Aside from the T3SS, two genes encoding well-characterized virulence proteins are typically found on the PAI, the thermostable direct hemolysin gene (''tdh'') and/or the ''tdh''-related hemolysin gene (''trh''). Strains possessing one or both of these hemolysins exhibit beta-hemolysis on specialised blood agar plates called Wagatsuma agar, while the phenomenon being called the eponymous Kanagawa phenomenon. A distinct correlation seems to exist between presence of ''tdh'', ''trh'', and the two known T3SS variants: observations have shown T3SS2α correlating with ''tdh''+/''trh''- strains, while T3SS2β correlates with ''tdh''-/''trh''+ strains.

GefA, a GGEEF domain containing diguanylate cyclase, has recently been characterized from the ''V. parahaemolyticus'' genome. GefA plays a significant role in pathogenesis. By inhibiting swarming motility and promoting biofilm formation, it helps the bacteria to colonize within a host. Additionally, GefA influences the expression of virulence factors like the T3SS1, which directly contributes to the injection of the effector molecules into the host cell.

Signs and symptoms

The incubation period of about 24 hours is followed by intense watery or bloody diarrhea accompanied by nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and sometimes a fever. Symptoms typically resolve within 72 hours, but can persist for up to 10 days in immunocompromised individuals. As the vast majority of cases of ''V. parahaemolyticus'' food poisoning are self-limiting, doxycycline is not typically necessary. In severe cases, ORS is indicated.

Epidemiology

Outbreaks tend to be concentrated along coastal regions during the summer and early fall when higher water temperatures favor higher levels of bacteria. Seafood most often implicated includes squid, mackerel, tuna, sardines, crab, conch, shrimp, and bivalves, such as oysters and clams. In the Northeast United States, there is an increasing incidence of illness due to oysters contaminated with ''V. parahaemolyticus'', which is associated with warmer waters from the Gulf of Mexico moving northward.

Additionally, swimming or working in affected areas can lead to infections of the eyes, ears, or open cuts and wounds. Following Hurricane Katrina, 22 wounds were infected with ''Vibrio'', three of which were caused by ''V. parahaemolyticus'', and two of these led to death.

Hosts

Hosts of ''V. parahaemolyticus'' include:
* '' Clithon retropictus''
* ''Litopenaeus'' shrimp (suspected; possibly causes necrotising hepatopancreatitis)
* ''Nerita albicilla''
* '' Magallana gigas''

References

External links

*

FDA ''Bad Bug Book'' entry on ''V. parahaemolyticus''

Type strain of ''Vibrio parahaemolyticus''
at Bac''Dive''—the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase

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Bacteria described in 1951
Food microbiology
Marine microorganisms
Vibrionales
Pathogenic bacteria