Underwater Camera
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Underwater photography is the practice of capturing images beneath the surface of the water, often done while
scuba diving Scuba diving is a Diving mode, mode of underwater diving whereby divers use Scuba set, breathing equipment that is completely independent of a surface breathing gas supply, and therefore has a limited but variable endurance. The word ''scub ...
, but can also be done while diving on surface supply,
snorkeling Snorkeling (American and British English spelling differences#Doubled in British English, British and Commonwealth English spelling: snorkelling) is the practice of human swimming, swimming face down on or through a body of water while breathing ...
, swimming, from a
submersible A submersible is an underwater vehicle which needs to be transported and supported by a larger ship, watercraft or dock, platform. This distinguishes submersibles from submarines, which are self-supporting and capable of prolonged independent ope ...
or
remotely operated underwater vehicle A remotely operated underwater vehicle (ROUV) or remotely operated vehicle (ROV) is a free-swimming submersible craft used to perform underwater observation, inspection and physical tasks such as valve operations, hydraulic functions and other g ...
, or from automated cameras lowered from the surface. Underwater photography can also be categorized as an art form and a method for recording data. Successful underwater imaging is usually done with specialized equipment and techniques. However, it offers exciting and rare photographic opportunities. Animals such as fish and
marine mammals Marine mammals are mammals that rely on marine ecosystems for their existence. They include animals such as cetaceans, pinnipeds, sirenians, sea otters and polar bears. They are an informal group, unified only by their reliance on marine env ...
are common subjects, but photographers also pursue
shipwrecks A shipwreck is the wreckage of a ship that is located either beached on land or sunken to the bottom of a body of water. It results from the event of ''shipwrecking'', which may be intentional or unintentional. There were approximately thre ...
, submerged cave systems, underwater "landscapes",
invertebrates Invertebrates are animals that neither develop nor retain a vertebral column (commonly known as a ''spine'' or ''backbone''), which evolved from the notochord. It is a paraphyletic grouping including all animals excluding the chordate subphylum ...
,
seaweeds Seaweed, or macroalgae, refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. The term includes some types of ''Rhodophyta'' (red), '' Phaeophyta'' (brown) and ''Chlorophyta'' (green) macroalgae. Seaweed species such as ...
, geological features, and
portrait A portrait is a painting, photograph, sculpture, or other artistic representation of a person, in which the face is always predominant. In arts, a portrait may be represented as half body and even full body. If the subject in full body better r ...
s of fellow divers.


Equipment

Some cameras are made for use underwater, including modern
waterproof digital camera A digital camera, also called a digicam, is a camera that captures photographs in digital memory. Most cameras produced today are digital, largely replacing those that capture images on photographic film or film stock. Digital cameras are now ...
s. The first amphibious camera was the Calypso, reintroduced as the
Nikonos Nikonos is the brand name of a series of 35mm format cameras specifically designed for underwater photography launched by Nikon in 1963. The early Nikonos cameras were improvements of the Calypso (camera), Calypso camera, which was an original de ...
in 1963. The Nikonos range was designed specifically for use underwater.
Nikon (, ; ) is a Japanese optics and photographic equipment manufacturer. Nikon's products include cameras, camera lenses, binoculars, microscopes, ophthalmic lenses, measurement instruments, rifle scopes, spotting scopes, and equipment related to S ...
ended the Nikonos series in 2001 and its use has declined, as has that of other
35mm film 35 mm may refer to: Film * 135 film, a type of still photography format commonly referred to as 35 mm film * 35 mm movie film 35 mm film is a film gauge used in filmmaking, and the film standard. In motion pictures that record on ...
systems. ''Sea and Sea USA'' made the Motor Marine III, an amphibious range-finder camera for 35mm film.


Underwater housings

Cameras made for dry work can also work underwater, protected by add-on housings, which are made for
point and shoot camera A point-and-shoot camera, also known as a compact camera and sometimes abbreviated to P&S, is a still camera (either film or digital) designed primarily for simple operation. Most use focus free lenses or autofocus for focusing, automatic syste ...
s,
compact camera A point-and-shoot camera, also known as a compact camera and sometimes abbreviated to P&S, is a still camera (either film or digital) designed primarily for simple operation. Most use focus free lenses or autofocus for focusing, automatic syste ...
s with full exposure controls, and
single lens reflex camera In photography, a single-lens reflex camera (SLR) is a type of camera that uses a mirror and prism system to allow photographers to view through the lens and see exactly what will be captured. SLRs became the dominant design for professional a ...
s (SLRs). Most such housings are specific to the camera model. Materials range from relatively inexpensive injection molded plastic to higher-priced die-cast or machined from solid aluminum. Housings allow many options: users can choose housings specific to their everyday "land" cameras and use any lens, provided that it fits or they use the appropriate lens port accessory. Underwater photographers generally use
wide-angle lens In photography and cinematography, a wide-angle lens is a Photographic lens, lens covering a large angle of view. Conversely, its focal length is substantially smaller than that of a normal lens for a given film plane. This type of lens allows mo ...
es or
macro lens Macro photography (or photomacrography or macrography, and sometimes macrophotography) is extreme close-up photography, usually of very small subjects and living organisms like insects, in which the size of the subject in the photograph is g ...
es, both of which allow close
focus Focus (: foci or focuses) may refer to: Arts * Focus or Focus Festival, former name of the Adelaide Fringe arts festival in East Australia Film *Focus (2001 film), ''Focus'' (2001 film), a 2001 film based on the Arthur Miller novel *Focus (2015 ...
and therefore a shorter distance to the subject, which reduces the loss of clarity to scattering. Digital media can hold many more shots than standard film (which rarely has more than 36 frames per roll). This gives digital cameras an advantage, since it is impractical to change film underwater. Other comparisons between digital and film photography also apply, and the use of film under water has declined, as it has on land. It is also not possible to change regular lenses underwater, though some wet connectable telephoto, fisheye and macro extensions are available for some housings. Underwater housings have control knobs and buttons that reach the camera inside, allowing use of most of its normal functions. These housings may also have connectors to attach external
flash Flash, flashes, or FLASH may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional aliases * The Flash, several DC Comics superheroes with super speed: ** Flash (Jay Garrick) ** Barry Allen ** Wally West, the first Kid Flash and third adult Flash ...
units. Some basic housings allow the use of the flash on the camera, but the on-board flash may not be powerful enough or properly placed for underwater use. More-advanced housings either redirect the on-board strobe to fire a slave strobe via a fiber-optic cable, or physically prevent the use of the on-board strobe. Housings are made waterproof by silicone or other elastomer
O-ring An O-ring, also known as a packing or a toric joint, is a mechanical gasket in the shape of a torus; it is a loop of elastomer with a round cross section (geometry), cross-section, designed to be seated in a groove and compressed during assembl ...
s at the closures and where control spindles and pushbuttons pass through the housing. High-end housings may use double O-rings on many of the critical pushbuttons and spindles to reduce the risk of leaks, which can destroy the electronics in cameras. Some cameras are inherently waterproof, or submersible to shallow depths; when these are in submersible housings, the consequences of a small leak are generally not serious. There are optical problems with using cameras inside a watertight housing. Because of
refraction In physics, refraction is the redirection of a wave as it passes from one transmission medium, medium to another. The redirection can be caused by the wave's change in speed or by a change in the medium. Refraction of light is the most commo ...
, the image coming through the glass port will be distorted, especially with wide-angle lenses. A dome-shaped or fish-eye port corrects this distortion. Most manufacturers make these dome ports for their housings, often designing them to be used with specific lenses to maximize their effectiveness. The Nikonos series allowed the use of water-contact optics—lenses designed to be used submerged, without the ability to focus correctly when used in air. There is also a problem with some
digital camera A digital camera, also called a digicam, is a camera that captures photographs in Digital data storage, digital memory. Most cameras produced today are digital, largely replacing those that capture images on photographic film or film stock. Dig ...
s, which do not have sufficiently wide lenses built in; to solve this, there are housings made with supplementary
optics Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of optical instruments, instruments that use or Photodetector, detect it. Optics usually describes t ...
in addition to the dome port, making the apparent
angle of view In photography, angle of view (AOV) describes the angular extent of a given scene that is imaged by a camera. It is used interchangeably with the more general term '' field of view''. It is important to distinguish the angle of view from the ...
wider. Some housings work with wet-coupled lenses, which are screwed on to the outside of the lens port and increase the field of view; these lenses may be added or removed under water, allowing both macro and wide-angle photography on the same dive. With
macro lens Macro photography (or photomacrography or macrography, and sometimes macrophotography) is extreme close-up photography, usually of very small subjects and living organisms like insects, in which the size of the subject in the photograph is g ...
es, the distortion caused by refraction is not a problem, so normally a simple flat glass port is used. Refraction through a flat port increases the
magnification Magnification is the process of enlarging the apparent size, not physical size, of something. This enlargement is quantified by a size ratio called optical magnification. When this number is less than one, it refers to a reduction in size, so ...
of a macro lens; this is considered a benefit to photographers who are trying to capture very small subjects. Digital cameras may have several user selectable or programmable
modes Mode ( meaning "manner, tune, measure, due measure, rhythm, melody") may refer to: Arts and entertainment * MO''D''E (magazine), a defunct U.S. women's fashion magazine * ''Mode'' magazine, a fictional fashion magazine which is the setting fo ...
, which may include modes specifically for underwater use.Buoyancy of the housing may have to be adjusted by adding ballast or buoyancy chambers. Ideally these should be incompressible at working depth range so the buoyancy remains constant throughout the dive, and can be set with considerable precision. Most divers can manage a small divergence from neutral buoyancy, but a large divergence can make it difficult to hold the camera in place with one hand, which can often be useful, particularly with point and shoot cameras. When photographing on breath-hold, it is convenient if the camera will float back to the surface if dropped. On scuba it may be more convenient if it does not float away.


Smartphone housings

Underwater housings for smartphones are available with a variety of depth ratings and features. These can be less expensive than dedicated underwater photography cameras. The simplest form is a waterproof pouch, best used for shallow-water photography. Some smartphone housings are limited by operating system. Others are compatible with almost any phone that will physically fit into the housing, but require
Bluetooth Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard that is used for exchanging data between fixed and mobile devices over short distances and building personal area networks (PANs). In the most widely used mode, transmission power is li ...
and an app enabling the phone to communicate with the housing. Wireless communication allows the housing to be made with only one opening hull penetration and no moving parts penetrating the camera compartment. Some housings are pumped down to a near vacuum after sealing, which secures the cover and allows the seal to be tested before entering the water. Some (like the Diveroid Universal Lite) use physical capacitive buttons that interact with the touch screen.


Camera formats

Most types of digital camera have some underwater application. Those commonly seen in use are the models for which stock underwater housings are available, or which are inherently waterproof, such as rugged compact cameras, which may be used at shallow depths without a housing, but have housings available for greater depths. * Compacts, rugged compacts and
bridge camera A bridge camera is a type of camera that fills the niche between relatively simple point-and-shoot cameras and interchangeable-lens cameras such as mirrorless cameras and single-lens reflex cameras (SLRs). They are often comparable in siz ...
s have great versatility regarding focal length, they tend to have a wide angle to telephoto lens with macro capabilities making these functions available without need to change lenses, which cannot be done during a dive. Although wet change accessories are available to increase or decrease focal length and for greater magnification, the 2020 generation rugged compacts already have inherent very close focus ability, and fairly wide angle low end of the focal length. Some of the rugged compact cameras will fit into a large dry suit or BC pocket in their underwater housing, though not usually with an external strobe or video light, allowing a diver to conveniently carry the camera on a working dive in case it may be useful, or for a larger format photographer to carry it as a backup, or for opportunities where the main camera has an unsuitable lens fitted. *
Action camera An action camera or action cam is a digital camera designed for recording action while being immersed in it. Action cameras are therefore typically compact, rugged, and waterproof at the surface level. They typically use CMOS image sensors, an ...
s are popular with divers who want a record of the dive, but not the task loading of operating the camera controls. The camera can be hand held for versatility, or can be head mounted for first person view, or mounted on other equipment, like a
diver propulsion vehicle A diver propulsion vehicle (DPV), also known as an underwater propulsion vehicle, sea scooter, underwater scooter, or swimmer delivery vehicle (SDV) by armed forces, is an item of diving equipment used by scuba divers to increase range underwa ...
. *
Mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera A mirrorless camera (sometimes referred to as a mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera (MILC) or digital single-lens mirrorless (DSLM)) is a digital camera which, in contrast to DSLRs, does not use a mirror in order to ensure that the image ...
s and
Digital single-lens reflex camera A digital single-lens reflex camera (digital SLR or DSLR) is a digital camera that combines the optics and mechanisms of a single-lens reflex camera with a solid-state image sensor and digitally records the images from the sensor. The reflex des ...
s have very similar ranges of applications, mostly for high end work, where the photographer wants the best possible image quality, and has the skills and desire to put in the necessary effort and accepts the limitations of being stuck with the same lens throughout the dive, and managing bulky equipment. These formats are almost always used with large external lighting systems which are needed in most circumstances to get the best results. A relatively large capital investment in equipment is associated with the format *These high-end systems are favored by professional underwater photographers and scientific divers due to their superior image sensors, extensive manual controls, and adaptability to complex lighting setups. The development of advanced mirrorless systems has further blurred the line between DSLRs and more compact formats, offering similar performance in smaller housings, which can be advantageous in restrictive dive environments Innovations such as full-frame sensors and in-body stabilization have enabled improved low-light performance and image clarity, even at significant depths where ambient light is minimal Despite the cost and complexity, the ability to capture high-resolution stills and 4K or even 8K video has cemented these formats as the tools of choice for documentary filmmaking and scientific research underwater Moreover, the availability of customizable ports, domes, and strobes allows for fine-tuned adaptations based on the specific requirements of marine subjects or research goals, although this often requires in-depth knowledge of underwater optics and hydrodynamic considerations.


Lighting

Lighting for underwater photography has several aspects. There may be insufficient natural light to take a photo, in many cases the natural light has lost a significant part of the spectrum, or the photographer wishes to emphasize contrast between foreground and background. Where flash is used for the actual photograph, auxiliary light may be necessary or desirable to facilitate composition and focusing in low light conditions. Many digital cameras have video options, which require a steady light source, and in some cases a single video light can provide all these functions, and also serve as an adequate dive light for non-photographic applications. The primary obstacle faced by underwater photographers is the loss of color and
contrast Contrast may refer to: Science * Contrast (vision), the contradiction in form, colour and light between parts of an image * Contrast (statistics), a combination of averages whose coefficients add up to zero, or the difference between two means * ...
when submerged to any significant depth. One issue faced is light attenuation. The longer
wavelengths In physics and mathematics, wavelength or spatial period of a wave or periodic function is the distance over which the wave's shape repeats. In other words, it is the distance between consecutive corresponding points of the same '' phase'' on ...
of
sunlight Sunlight is the portion of the electromagnetic radiation which is emitted by the Sun (i.e. solar radiation) and received by the Earth, in particular the visible spectrum, visible light perceptible to the human eye as well as invisible infrare ...
(such as red or orange) are absorbed quickly by the surrounding water, so even to the naked eye everything appears blue-green. The loss of color increases not only vertically through the
water column The (oceanic) water column is a concept used in oceanography to describe the physical (temperature, salinity, light penetration) and chemical ( pH, dissolved oxygen, nutrient salts) characteristics of seawater at different depths for a defined ...
, but also horizontally, so subjects farther away from the camera also appear colorless and indistinct. This effect occurs in apparently clear water, such as that found around tropical
coral reefs A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups. ...
. Underwater photographers solve this problem by combining two techniques. The first is to get the camera as close to the photographic subject as possible, minimizing the horizontal loss of color. Many serious underwater photographers consider any more than about one yard or meter unacceptable. The second technique is the use of a
flash Flash, flashes, or FLASH may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional aliases * The Flash, several DC Comics superheroes with super speed: ** Flash (Jay Garrick) ** Barry Allen ** Wally West, the first Kid Flash and third adult Flash ...
or video lights to restore colour lost to depth.
Fill flash Fill flash is a photographic technique used to brighten deep shadow areas, typically outdoors on sunny days, though the technique is useful any time the background is significantly brighter than the subject of the photograph, particularly in ba ...
, used effectively, "paints" in missing colors by providing
full-spectrum Full-spectrum light is light that covers the electromagnetic spectrum from infrared to near-ultraviolet, or all wavelengths that are useful to plant or animal life; in particular, sunlight is considered full spectrum, even though the solar spectral ...
visible light to the overall exposure. Another environmental effect is range of visibility. The water is seldom optimally clear, and the dissolved and suspended matter can reduce visibility by both absorption and scattering of light.


Underwater flash

The use of a
flash Flash, flashes, or FLASH may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional aliases * The Flash, several DC Comics superheroes with super speed: ** Flash (Jay Garrick) ** Barry Allen ** Wally West, the first Kid Flash and third adult Flash ...
or
strobe A strobe light or stroboscopic lamp, commonly called a strobe, is a device used to produce regular flashes of light. It is one of a number of devices that can be used as a stroboscope. The word originated from the Ancient Greek ('), meaning ...
is often regarded as the most difficult aspect of underwater photography. Some misconceptions exist about the proper use of flash underwater, especially as it relates to wide-angle photography. Generally, the flash should be used to supplement the overall exposure and to restore lost color, not as the primary light source. In situations such as the interior of
caves Caves or caverns are natural voids under the Earth's surface. Caves often form by the weathering of rock and often extend deep underground. Exogene caves are smaller openings that extend a relatively short distance underground (such as rock ...
or
shipwrecks A shipwreck is the wreckage of a ship that is located either beached on land or sunken to the bottom of a body of water. It results from the event of ''shipwrecking'', which may be intentional or unintentional. There were approximately thre ...
, wide-angle images can be 100% strobe light, but such situations are fairly rare. Usually, the photographer tries to create an aesthetic balance between the available
sunlight Sunlight is the portion of the electromagnetic radiation which is emitted by the Sun (i.e. solar radiation) and received by the Earth, in particular the visible spectrum, visible light perceptible to the human eye as well as invisible infrare ...
and the strobe. Deep, dark or low visibility environments can make this balance more difficult, but the concept remains the same. Many modern cameras have simplified this process through various automatic exposure modes and the use of
through-the-lens In photography, through-the-lens metering (TTL metering) refers to a feature of cameras whereby the intensity of light reflected from the scene is measured through the photographic lens, lens; as opposed to using a separate metering window or exter ...
(TTL) metering. The increasing use of digital cameras has reduced the
learning curve A learning curve is a graphical representation of the relationship between how proficient people are at a task and the amount of experience they have. Proficiency (measured on the vertical axis) usually increases with increased experience (the ...
of underwater flash significantly, since the user can instantly review photos and make adjustments. Color is absorbed as it travels through water, so that the deeper the observer, the less reds, oranges and yellow colors remain. The strobe replaces that color. It also helps to provide shadow and texture, and is a valuable tool for creativity. An added complication is the phenomenon of
backscatter In physics, backscatter (or backscattering) is the reflection of waves, particles, or signals back to the direction from which they came. It is usually a diffuse reflection due to scattering, as opposed to specular reflection as from a mirror, ...
, where the flash reflects off particles in the water. These particles show up in the final shot as bright dots. Even seemingly clear water contains enormous amounts of these particulates, even if they not readily seen by the naked eye. The best technique for avoiding backscatter is positioning the strobe away from the axis of the camera lens. Ideally, this means the flash will not light up the particulates in water directly in front of the lens, but will still illuminate the subject. Various systems of jointed arms and attachments are used to make off-camera strobes easier to manipulate. When using
macro lens Macro photography (or photomacrography or macrography, and sometimes macrophotography) is extreme close-up photography, usually of very small subjects and living organisms like insects, in which the size of the subject in the photograph is g ...
es, photographers are much more likely to use 100% strobe light for the exposure. The subject is normally very close to the lens, and the available ambient light is usually not sufficient. There have been some attempts to avoid the use of artificial light entirely, but these have mostly failed. In shallow water, the use of custom white-balance provides excellent color without the use of strobe. In theory one could use color
filters Filtration is a physical process that separates solid matter and fluid from a mixture. Filter, filtering, filters or filtration may also refer to: Science and technology Computing * Filter (higher-order function), in functional programming * Fil ...
to overcome the blue-green shift, but this can be problematic. The amount of shift varies with depth and
turbidity Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. The measurement of turbidity is a key test of both water clarity and wa ...
, and there would still be a significant loss of contrast. Many
digital camera A digital camera, also called a digicam, is a camera that captures photographs in Digital data storage, digital memory. Most cameras produced today are digital, largely replacing those that capture images on photographic film or film stock. Dig ...
s have settings that will provide
color balance In photography and image processing, color balance is the global adjustment of the intensities of the colors (typically red, green, and blue primary colors). An important goal of this adjustment is to render specific colors – particularly neu ...
, but this can cause other problems. For example, an image shifted toward the "warm" part of the spectrum can create background water which appears gray, purple or pink, and looks unnatural. There have been some successful experiments using filters combined with the
raw image format A camera raw image file contains unprocessed or minimally processed data from the image sensor of either a digital camera, a motion picture film scanner, or other image scanner. Raw files are so named because they are not yet processed, ...
function on some high-end digital cameras, allowing more detailed manipulation in the
digital darkroom Digital Darkroom was an Apple Macintosh graphics program for editing gray-scale photos. It was published by Silicon Beach Software in 1987. It was programmed by Ed Bomke and Don Cone. Digital Darkroom was the first Macintosh program to incorporat ...
. This approach will probably always be restricted to shallower depths, where the loss of color is less extreme. In spite of that, it can be effective for large subjects such as shipwrecks which could not be lit effectively with strobes. Natural light photography underwater can be beautiful when done properly with subjects such as upward silhouettes, light beams, and large subjects such as whales and dolphins. Although digital cameras have revolutionized many aspects of underwater imaging, it is unlikely that flash will ever be eliminated completely. From an aesthetic standpoint, the flash emphasizes the subject and helps separate it from the blue background, especially in deeper water. Ultimately the loss of color and contrast is a pervasive optical problem that cannot always be adjusted in software such as
Photoshop Adobe Photoshop is a raster graphics editor developed and published by Adobe for Windows and macOS. It was created in 1987 by Thomas and John Knoll. It is the most used tool for professional digital art, especially in raster graphics editin ...
.


Snoot

A
snoot A snoot is a tube or similar object that fits over a light used in theatrical lighting or photography, to control the direction and radius of the light beam. Snoots can be cylindrical or truncated conical in shape, different lengths and diameter ...
is a tube used to direct the illumination from the flash or other light source to a very restricted area, strongly illuminating the area of focus and leaving the surroundings relatively dark. It is used to selectively illuminate the subject to give dark backgrounds and a brightly lit subject. It is easier to use if the flash has an integral modeling light so the photographer can see how the illumination will be distributed during exposure. A snoot with the opening placed close to the subject at an angle can virtually eliminate backscatter.


Modeling lights

A
modeling light A flash is a device used in photography that produces a brief burst of light (lasting around of a second) at a color temperature of about 5500 K to help illuminate a scene. The main purpose of a flash is to illuminate a dark scene. Other us ...
is a low intensity light used to compose the picture when flash is intended for illumination. It allows a better view of the subject for focusing and framing the shot, but does not provide enough light to interfere with the flash illumination. Some flash units have integral modeling lights with an aluminum funnel and flash unit to direct the angle in which the light is exerted in. otherwise a diffuse low power dive light may work well for close up work.


Video lights

A video light is a powerful light source used primarily for shooting video in environments with insufficient natural light, but can also be used as the primary light source for still photography. Placement of the video light follows the same recommendations as for flash photography, with the advantage that the illumination can be clearly seen and assessed before exposure. Considerably more energy is required for constant illumination in comparison with flash, and this method is best suited to cameras with sufficiently sensitive CCDs and for close up work. Another advantage is that the video light provides good illumination for general diving purposes. Video lights with adjustable intensity can be even more versatile. Video lights tend to be mounted similarly to flash. The intense light may disturb light sensitive animals, and they may react by retreating from the source. A large proportion of digital cameras have high definition video function, and video lights provide the option of switching between still and video using the same equipment.


Split images

Another format considered part of underwater photography is the over/under or split image, a composition that includes roughly half above the surface and half underwater, with both in focus. One of the pioneers of the traditional technique was
National Geographic ''National Geographic'' (formerly ''The National Geographic Magazine'', sometimes branded as ''Nat Geo'') is an American monthly magazine published by National Geographic Partners. The magazine was founded in 1888 as a scholarly journal, nine ...
photographer
David Doubilet David Doubilęt (born November 28, 1946) is an underwater photographer known primarily for his work published in ''National Geographic'' magazine, where he is a contributing photographer and has been an author for 70 feature articles since 1971. He ...
, who used it to capture scenes above and below the surface simultaneously. Split images are popular in recreational
scuba Scuba, originally SCUBA, often expanded to scuba set, is any self contained underwater breathing apparatus, a source of breathing gas used for underwater diving which is carried by the diver. Scuba may also refer to: * Scuba diving, swimming unde ...
magazines, often showing divers swimming beneath a boat, or shallow
coral reef A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in group ...
s with the shoreline seen in the background. Over/under shots present some technical challenges beyond the scope of most underwater camera systems. Normally an
ultra wide angle lens An ultra wide-angle lens is a Photographic lens, lens whose focal length is shorter than that of an average wide-angle lens, providing an even wider view. The term denotes a different range of lenses, relative to the size of the sensor in the c ...
is used, similar to the way it would be used in everyday underwater photography. However, the
exposure value In photography, exposure value (EV) is a number that represents a combination of a camera's shutter speed and f-number, such that all combinations that yield the same exposure (photography), exposure have the same EV (for any fixed scene luminanc ...
in the above water part of the image is often higher (brighter) than in the one underwater. There is also the problem of
refraction In physics, refraction is the redirection of a wave as it passes from one transmission medium, medium to another. The redirection can be caused by the wave's change in speed or by a change in the medium. Refraction of light is the most commo ...
in the underwater segment, and how it affects the overall
focus Focus (: foci or focuses) may refer to: Arts * Focus or Focus Festival, former name of the Adelaide Fringe arts festival in East Australia Film *Focus (2001 film), ''Focus'' (2001 film), a 2001 film based on the Arthur Miller novel *Focus (2015 ...
in relation to the air segment. There are specialized split
filters Filtration is a physical process that separates solid matter and fluid from a mixture. Filter, filtering, filters or filtration may also refer to: Science and technology Computing * Filter (higher-order function), in functional programming * Fil ...
designed to compensate for both of these problems, as well as techniques for creating even exposure across the entire image. However, professional photographers often use extremely wide or
fisheye lens A fisheye lens is an ultra wide angle lens, ultra wide-angle lens that produces strong Distortion (optics), visual distortion intended to create a wide panorama, panoramic or Sphere#Hemisphere, hemispherical image. Fisheye lenses achieve extremel ...
es that provide extensive
depth of field The depth of field (DOF) is the distance between the nearest and the farthest objects that are in acceptably sharp focus (optics), focus in an image captured with a camera. See also the closely related depth of focus. Factors affecting depth ...
– and a very small aperture for even more extensive depth of field; this is intended for acceptably sharp focus both on the nearby underwater subject and the more distant elements above water. An external flash can also be very useful underwater, on a low setting, to balance the light: to overcome the difference in brightness of the elements above and below the water. Over/under photos necessitate the lens or port to be partly below and partly above the surface. When bringing the outer optical surface out of the water, droplets can be left on the surface which can distort the image. This can be avoided to some extent by wiping off the droplets with a
chamois leather Chamois leather () is a type of porous leather, traditionally the skin of the chamois (''Rupicapra rupicapra''), a type of European mountain goat, but today made almost exclusively from the flesh split of a sheepskin. United Kingdom The Bri ...
cloth above the water and lowering the camera to working position. Keeping the port fully wet is an alternative option, which requires the shot to be taken before the water on the top part of the lens surface separates into droplets. Which approach works better will depend on the surface tension of water on the lens surface.
David Doubilet David Doubilęt (born November 28, 1946) is an underwater photographer known primarily for his work published in ''National Geographic'' magazine, where he is a contributing photographer and has been an author for 70 feature articles since 1971. He ...
explained his technique for split field images in an interview for Nikon Corporation. "You need to use a D-SLR and a super wide-angle or fisheye lens and a sophisticated housing that has a dome, not a flat port. Underwater images are magnified by 25 percent, and the dome will correct for that. The technique requires a small f/stop—f/16 or smaller—for great depth of field, plus a lens capable of close-focus; you always focus on the subject below the water line. You also have to balance the light. I look for a light bottom—white sand is best—or a light underwater subject. I'll put the strobes down below and light the bottom and then expose for the top. If you shoot at, say, ISO 400, you'll have plenty of exposure for the top, and the strobes will take care of the bottom. Of course, you need subjects that suit the technique."
Digital darkroom Digital Darkroom was an Apple Macintosh graphics program for editing gray-scale photos. It was published by Silicon Beach Software in 1987. It was programmed by Ed Bomke and Don Cone. Digital Darkroom was the first Macintosh program to incorporat ...
techniques can also be used to "merge" two images together, creating the appearance of an over/under shot.


Applications

*
Artistic photography Fine-art photography is photography created in line with the vision of the photographer as artist, using photography as a medium for creative expression. The goal of fine-art photography is to express an idea, a message, or an emotion. This stand ...
, where the emotional impact on the viewer is a primary concern. *Records of the condition of equipment and structures by commercial divers, where the purpose is to accurately present visible evidence of the condition of the subject. *Records of the environment for personal and scientific purposes **
Citizen science The term citizen science (synonymous to terms like community science, crowd science, crowd-sourced science, civic science, participatory monitoring, or volunteer monitoring) is research conducted with participation from the general public, or am ...
websites for recording
Biodiversity Biodiversity is the variability of life, life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels. There is for example genetic variability, species diversity, ecosystem diversity and Phylogenetics, phylogenetic diversity. Diversity is not distribut ...
using underwater photographs as records, such as
iNaturalist iNaturalist is an American 501(c)(3) nonprofit social network of naturalists, citizen scientists, and biologists built on the concept of mapping and sharing observations of biodiversity across the globe. iNaturalist may be accessed via its web ...
, Reef Life Survey, iSpot etc., use photography as a reliable source of objective data where the observer is not required to be recognized as an expert in identification of the subject, but is trusted to provide sufficiently accurate information regarding time, location, and similar meta-data. Recreational diver photographic coverage of the underwater environment is much more frequent than scientific research capacity for popular dive sites.


Skills and training

Since underwater photography is often performed while scuba diving, it is important that the diver-photographer be sufficiently skilled so that it remains a reasonably safe activity. Good scuba technique also improves the quality of images, since
marine life Marine life, sea life or ocean life is the collective ecological communities that encompass all aquatic animals, aquatic plant, plants, algae, marine fungi, fungi, marine protists, protists, single-celled marine microorganisms, microorganisms ...
is less likely to be scared away by a calm diver, and the environment is less likely to be damaged or disturbed by a diver competent in buoyancy, trim, and maneuvering skills. There is the possibility of encountering poor conditions, such as heavy currents,
tidal flow Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon (and to a much lesser extent, the Sun) and are also caused by the Earth and Moon orbiting one another. Tide tables ca ...
, or poor
visibility In meteorology, visibility is the measure of the distance at which an object or light can be clearly discerned. It depends on the Transparency and translucency, transparency of the surrounding air and as such, it is unchanging no matter the amb ...
. Underwater photographers usually try to avoid these situations if reasonably practicable, but in many cases the desired subject can only be accessed under less than ideal conditions and the photographer must deal with reality. Underwater diving training providers provide courses to help improve divers' diving skills and underwater photography skills. Good diving skills are necessary to avoid damaging the environment when maneuvering close to benthic subjects on reefs. Some underwater photographers have been implicated in reef damage.


Scientific potential

Underwater photography has become more and more popular since the early 2000s, resulting on millions of pictures posted every year on various websites and social media. This mass of documentation is endowed with an enormous scientific potential, as millions of tourists possess a much superior coverage power than professional scientists, who can not allow themselves to spend so much time in the field. As a consequence, several participative sciences programs have been developed, supported by geo-localization and identification web sites (such as
iNaturalist iNaturalist is an American 501(c)(3) nonprofit social network of naturalists, citizen scientists, and biologists built on the concept of mapping and sharing observations of biodiversity across the globe. iNaturalist may be accessed via its web ...
), along with protocols for auto-organization and self-teaching aimed at biodiversity-interested snorkelers, for them to turn their observations into sound scientific data, available for research. This kind of approach has been successfully used in
Réunion island Réunion (; ; ; known as before 1848) is an island in the Indian Ocean that is an overseas department and region of France. Part of the Mascarene Islands, it is located approximately east of the island of Madagascar and southwest of the is ...
, allowing for tens of new records and even new species. Scientists use underwater photography to examine objects on the sea floor over time, such as through
quadrat A quadrat is a frame used in ecology, geography, and biology to isolate a standard unit of area for study of the distribution of an item over a large area. Quadrats typically occupy an area of 0.25 m2 and are traditionally square, but modern quad ...
s.


History and Advancement

Underwater photography dates back to the early 20th century. Technological advancements, like the invention of the first waterproof camera housings and improvements in
diving equipment Diving equipment, or underwater diving equipment, is equipment used by underwater divers to make diving activities possible, easier, safer and/or more comfortable. This may be equipment primarily intended for this purpose, or equipment intended ...
, have made underwater photography more accessible. Today, digital cameras and advances in post-processing software have revolutionized underwater imaging, allowing photographers to capture high-resolution, color-rich images.


Timeline

*1856 — William Thompson takes the first underwater pictures using a camera mounted on a pole. *1893 —
Louis Boutan Louis Marie-Auguste Boutan (6 March 1859 – 6 April 1934) was a French biologist and photographer. He was a pioneer in the field of underwater photography. Biography The son of , he was born in Versailles and studied biology and natural h ...
takes underwater pictures in
Banyuls-sur-Mer Banyuls-sur-Mer (; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Pyrénées-Orientales Departments of France, department in southern France. Geography Location Banyuls-sur-Mer is located in the canton of La Côte Vermeille and in the arrondissemen ...
while diving using surface supplied
standard diving dress Standard diving dress, also known as hard-hat or copper hat equipment, deep sea diving suit or heavy gear, is a type of diving suit that was formerly used for all relatively deep underwater work that required more than breath-hold duration, whic ...
. He also develops an underwater
flash Flash, flashes, or FLASH may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional aliases * The Flash, several DC Comics superheroes with super speed: ** Flash (Jay Garrick) ** Barry Allen ** Wally West, the first Kid Flash and third adult Flash ...
and a remote control for deep waters using an
electromagnet An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current. Electromagnets usually consist of wire (likely copper) wound into a electromagnetic coil, coil. A current through the wire creates a magnetic ...
. *1914 —
John Ernest Williamson John Ernest Williamson (8 December 1881 – 15 July 1966) was an English filmmaker who invented the "photosphere" from which he filmed and photographed undersea. He is credited as being the first person to take an underwater photograph from a ...
shoots the first underwater motion picture in the Bahamas. *1926 —
William Harding Longley William Harding Longley (1881–1937) was a Canadian-American botanist and marine biologist. Born in Nova Scotia, Longley received his education at Acadia University and Yale University. He spent his career from 1911 to 1937 as a professor of bio ...
and Charles Martin take the first underwater colour photos using a magnesium-powered flash. *1940– —
Bruce Mozert Robert Bruce Moser (November 24, 1916 – October 14, 2015), known as Bruce Mozert, was an American photographer. He was considered to be a pioneer of underwater photography and his images of Silver Springs, Florida, were widely circulated during ...
begins to photograph at
Silver Springs, Florida Silver Springs is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Marion County of northern Florida. It is the site of the Silver Springs, a group of artesian springs and an historic tourist attraction that is now part of ...
*1948 — Development of the Rolleimarin medium format camera housing started on the request of Hans Hass. *1954 — The Rolleimarin housing first marketed. *1957 — The CALYPSO-PHOT camera is designed by
Jean de Wouters Jean Guy Marie Josef ''chevalier'' de Wouters d'Oplinter (1905 – 1973) was a Belgian inventor and aeronautical engineer. He was born in Brussels. In 1957, he created the Calypso-Phot for Jacques-Yves Cousteau under their La Spirotechnique ...
and promoted by
Jacques-Yves Cousteau Jacques-Yves Cousteau, (, also , ; 11 June 191025 June 1997) was a French naval officer, oceanographer, filmmaker and author. He co-invented the first successful open-circuit self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA), called the A ...
. It is first released in Australia in 1963. It features a maximum 1/1000 second shutter speed. A similar version is later produced by
Nikon (, ; ) is a Japanese optics and photographic equipment manufacturer. Nikon's products include cameras, camera lenses, binoculars, microscopes, ophthalmic lenses, measurement instruments, rifle scopes, spotting scopes, and equipment related to S ...
as the
Nikonos Nikonos is the brand name of a series of 35mm format cameras specifically designed for underwater photography launched by Nikon in 1963. The early Nikonos cameras were improvements of the Calypso (camera), Calypso camera, which was an original de ...
, with a maximum 1/500-second shutter speed and becomes the best-selling underwater camera series. *1961 — The San Diego Underwater Photographic Society is established, one of the earliest organizations dedicated to the advancement of underwater photography.


Notable underwater photographers

* Tamara Benitez – Filipina cinematographer *
Christy Lee Rogers Christy Lee Rogers is an fine art photographer, known for her works taken underwater. Early life Rogers was born in Honolulu, Hawaii and grew up in Kailua, on the island of Oahu. Career Rogers’ works have been exhibited globally from Paris, ...
– Underwater fine art photographer * Georges Beuchat – French inventor, diver and businessman * Adrian Biddle – English cinematographer * Jonathan Bird – American photographer, cinematographer, director and television host. *
Eric Cheng Eric Cheng (born January 9, 1975) is a Taiwanese American entrepreneur, professional photographer, and Emmy-nominated executive producer specializing in virtual reality, underwater photography, and aerial imaging. He is Head of Immersive Media at ...
– Taiwanese American entrepreneur and professional photographer *
Neville Coleman Neville Coleman OAM (1938 - 4 May 2012) was an Australian naturalist, underwater nature photographer, writer, publisher and educator. Coleman started scuba diving in 1963, exploring Sydney Harbour. Later he joined a scientific study group and ...
– Australian naturalist, underwater photographer, writer, publisher and educator *
Jacques Cousteau Jacques-Yves Cousteau, (, also , ; 11 June 191025 June 1997) was a French naval officer, oceanographer, filmmaker and author. He co-invented the first successful open-circuit self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA), called the ...
– French inventor of open circuit scuba, pioneer diver, author, film-maker and marine researcher * John D. Craig – American businessman, writer, soldier, and diver *
Ben Cropp Benjamin Cropp (born 19 January 1936) is an Australian documentary filmmaker, conservationist and a former Open Australian spearfishing champion. Formerly a shark hunter, Cropp retired from that trade in 1962 to pursue oceanic Documentary film ...
– Australian documentary filmmaker, conservationist and spearfisherman * Bernard Delemotte – French diver and photographer *
David Doubilet David Doubilęt (born November 28, 1946) is an underwater photographer known primarily for his work published in ''National Geographic'' magazine, where he is a contributing photographer and has been an author for 70 feature articles since 1971. He ...
– French diver and photographer * John Christopher Fine – American marine biologist, wreck diver and author *
Rodney Fox Rodney Winston Fox (born 9 November 1940) is an Australian film maker, conservationist, survivor of an attack by a great white shark, and one of the world's foremost authorities on that species. He was inducted into the International Scuba D ...
– Australian diver, film maker and conservationist * Ric Frazier – American photographer *
Stephen Frink Stephen Frink (born 1949) is a prolific underwater photographer, wildlife photographer, photo journalist, editor and publisher. Frink has contributed to ''Skin Diver magazine'' and ''Scuba Diving magazine''. He is currently the publisher of ''Ale ...
– Underwater photographer and publisher *
Peter Gimbel Peter R. Gimbel (February 14, 1927 – July 12, 1987) was an American filmmaker and underwater photojournalist. Biography Born in New York City, he was the son of Alva (née Bernheimer) and Bernard Feustman Gimbel and heir to the Gimbels depart ...
– American filmmaker and underwater photojournalist *
Monty Halls Monty Halls (born 5 November 1966) is a British TV broadcaster and marine biologist best known for his BBC Great Escape series ''Monty Halls' Great Escape'', ''Monty Halls' Great Hebridean Escape'' and ''Monty Halls' Great Irish Escape'', dur ...
– British TV broadcaster, diver and naturalist *
Hans Hass Hans Hass (23 January 1919 – 16 June 2013) was an Austrian biologist and underwater diving pioneer. He was known mainly for being among the first scientists to popularise coral reefs, stingrays, octopuses and sharks. He pioneered the making o ...
– Austrian biologist, film-maker, and underwater diving pioneer * Henry Way Kendall – American particle physicist who won the Nobel Prize in Physics *
Rudie Kuiter Rudie Hermann Kuiter (born 1943) is an Australian underwater photographer, taxonomist, marine biologist and author of many identification guides to sea fishes. He has described new species of seahorses in the genus ''Hippocampus''. Early life ...
– Dutch-born Australian underwater photographer, taxonomist, and marine biologist *
Joseph B. MacInnis Joseph Beverly MacInnis (born 2 March 1937) is a Canadian physician, author, and diver. In 1974, MacInnis was the first scientist to dive in the near-freezing waters beneath the North Pole. In 1976 he became a member of the Order of Canada. M ...
– Canadian physician, author, poet and aquanaut *
Luis Marden Luis Marden (born Annibale Luigi Paragallo) (January 25, 1913 – March 3, 2003) was an American photographer, explorer, writer, filmmaker, diver, navigator, and linguist who worked for '' National Geographic Magazine''. He worked as a photographe ...
– American photographer, explorer, writer, filmmaker, diver, navigator, and linguist *
Agnes Milowka Agnes Milowka (23 December 1981 – 27 February 2011) was an Australian technical diver, underwater photographer, author, maritime archaeologist and cave explorer. She gained international recognition for penetrating deeper than previo ...
– Australian cave diver * Noel Monkman – New Zealand born Australian filmmaker specialising in underwater photography * Steve Parish – British born Australian photographer and publisher * Zale Parry – American pioneer scuba diver, underwater photographer and actress * Pierre Petit – Early French photographer. First to attempt underwater photography *
Ronald C. Phillips Ronald Carl Phillips (1932–2005) was an American marine botanist and educator in the United States, Netherlands and Ukraine. He specialized in seagrass biology, ecology, systematics, distribution and transplantation. Prof. Phillips was the firs ...
– American marine botanist and professor. Produced coral and seagrass slides 1960s onwards for international scientific publications and university education *
Leni Riefenstahl Helene Bertha Amalie "Leni" Riefenstahl (; 22 August 1902 – 8 September 2003) was a German film director, Film producer, producer, screenwriter, Film editing, editor, photographer, and actress. She is considered one of the most controversial ...
– German film director, producer, screenwriter, editor, photographer, actress and dancer * Peter Scoones – Underwater cameraman *
Brian Skerry Brian Skerry is an American photojournalist and film producer specializing in marine life and ocean environments. Since 1998 he has been a contributing photographer for National Geographic magazine with more than 30 stories to his credit, includ ...
– American photojournalist * Wesley C. Skiles – American cave diver and underwater cinematographer * E. Lee Spence – underwater archaeologist *
Philippe Tailliez Philippe Tailliez (; 15 June 1905, Malo-les-Bains – 26 September 2002, Toulon, France) was a friend and colleague of Jacques Cousteau. He was an underwater pioneer, who had been diving since the 1930s. Biography He was the younger son of Fé ...
– French pioneer of scuba diving and underwater photographer * Ron Taylor and Valerie Taylor – Australian divers and shark cinematographers *
Albert Tillman Albert Alvin Tillman (January 16, 1928 – January 16, 2004) was an American educator and underwater diver. Biography Tillman was born in Los Angeles, California. He became interested in marine and underwater life when, at age 10, he peered thr ...
– American educator and underwater diver. * John Veltri – American filmmaker and underwater photographer *
Stan Waterman Stanton Arthur Waterman (April 5, 1923 – August 10, 2023) was an American cinematographer and underwater film producer who was a five-time Emmy Award winner.
– Cinematographer and underwater film producer *
J. Lamar Worzel J. Lamar Worzel (February 21, 1919 – December 26, 2008) was an American geophysicist known for his important contributions to underwater acoustics, underwater photography, and gravity measurements at sea. Life Worzel was born on February 21 ...
– American geophysicist and underwater photographer Image:Tamara Benitez by Martin Rey Aviles.jpg, Tamara Benitez Image:Peter Scoones.jpg, Peter Scoones Image:Brian Skerry.JPG, Brian Skerry


See also

* * * * * * *
Action camera An action camera or action cam is a digital camera designed for recording action while being immersed in it. Action cameras are therefore typically compact, rugged, and waterproof at the surface level. They typically use CMOS image sensors, an ...
– These cameras can be used for underwater photography and videography


References


Bibliography

*


External links

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirrorless_interchangeable-lens_camera https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_stabilization https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underwater_photography {{Authority control Underwater diving procedures Nature photography Photography by genre