Ubba (

Old Norse Old Norse, also referred to as Old Nordic or Old Scandinavian, was a stage of development of North Germanic languages, North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants ...

: ''Ubbi''; died 878) was a 9th-century

Viking Vikings were seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway, and Sweden), who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded, and settled throughout parts of Europe.Roesdahl, pp. 9� ...

and one of the commanders of the

Great Heathen Army The Great Heathen Army, also known as the Viking Great Army,Hadley. "The Winter Camp of the Viking Great Army, AD 872–3, Torksey, Lincolnshire", ''Antiquaries Journal''. 96, pp. 23–67 was a coalition of Scandinavian warriors who invaded ...

that invaded

Anglo-Saxon England Anglo-Saxon England or early medieval England covers the period from the end of Roman Empire, Roman imperial rule in Roman Britain, Britain in the 5th century until the Norman Conquest in 1066. Compared to modern England, the territory of the ...

in the 860s. The Great Army appears to have been a coalition of warbands drawn from

Scandinavia Scandinavia is a subregion#Europe, subregion of northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. ''Scandinavia'' most commonly refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. It can sometimes also ...

Ireland Ireland (, ; ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe. Geopolitically, the island is divided between the Republic of Ireland (officially Names of the Irish state, named Irelan ...

, the

Irish Sea The Irish Sea is a body of water that separates the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. It is linked to the Celtic Sea in the south by St George's Channel and to the Inner Seas off the West Coast of Scotland in the north by the North Ch ...

region and

Continental Europe Continental Europe or mainland Europe is the contiguous mainland of Europe, excluding its surrounding islands. It can also be referred to ambiguously as the European continent, – which can conversely mean the whole of Europe – and, by som ...

. There is reason to suspect that a proportion of the Viking forces specifically originated in

Frisia Frisia () is a Cross-border region, cross-border Cultural area, cultural region in Northwestern Europe. Stretching along the Wadden Sea, it encompasses the north of the Netherlands and parts of northwestern Germany. Wider definitions of "Frisia" ...

, where some Viking commanders are known to have held

fiefdom A fief (; ) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a form of feudal alle ...

s on behalf of the

Franks file:Frankish arms.JPG, Aristocratic Frankish burial items from the Merovingian dynasty The Franks ( or ; ; ) were originally a group of Germanic peoples who lived near the Rhine river, Rhine-river military border of Germania Inferior, which wa ...

. Some sources describe Ubba as ' of the

Frisians The Frisians () are an ethnic group indigenous to the German Bight, coastal regions of the Netherlands, north-western Germany and southern Denmark. They inhabit an area known as Frisia and are concentrated in the Dutch provinces of Friesland an ...

, which could be evidence that he also associated with a Frisian benefice. In 865, the Great Army, apparently led by Ivar the Boneless, overwintered in the

Kingdom of East Anglia The Kingdom of the East Angles (; ), informally known as the Kingdom of East Anglia, was a small independent Monarchy, kingdom of the Angles (tribe), Angles during the History of Anglo-Saxon England, Anglo-Saxon period comprising what are now t ...

, before invading and destroying the

Kingdom of Northumbria Northumbria () was an early medieval Heptarchy, kingdom in what is now Northern England and Scottish Lowlands, South Scotland. The name derives from the Old English meaning "the people or province north of the Humber", as opposed to the Sout ...

. In 869, having been bought off by the Mercians, the Vikings conquered the East Angles, and in the process killed their king,

Edmund Edmund is a masculine given name in the English language. The name is derived from the Old English elements ''ēad'', meaning "prosperity" or "riches", and ''mund'', meaning "protector". Persons named Edmund include: People Kings and nobles *Ed ...

, a man who was later regarded as a

saint In Christianity, Christian belief, a saint is a person who is recognized as having an exceptional degree of sanctification in Christianity, holiness, imitation of God, likeness, or closeness to God in Christianity, God. However, the use of the ...

and

martyr A martyr (, ''mártys'', 'witness' Word stem, stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external party. In ...

. While near-contemporary sources do not specifically associate Ubba with the latter campaign, some later, less reliable sources associate him with the legend of Edmund's martyrdom. In time, Ivar and Ubba came to be regarded as archetypal Viking invaders and opponents of

Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...

. As such, Ubba features in several dubious hagiographical accounts of Anglo-Saxon saints and ecclesiastical sites. Non-contemporary sources also associate Ivar and Ubba with the legend of

Ragnar Lodbrok Ragnar Lodbrok (Old Norse: ''Ragnarr loðbrók'', ), according to legends, was a Viking hero and a Legendary Kings of Sweden, Swedish and Legendary kings of Denmark, Danish king.Bagsecg and Halfdan, who campaigned against the Mercians and West Saxons. In 873, the Great Army is recorded to have split. Whilst Halfdan settled his followers in Northumbria, the army under

Guthrum Guthrum (, – c. 890) was King of East Anglia in the late 9th century. Originally a native of Denmark, he was one of the leaders of the "Great Summer Army" that arrived in Reading during April 871 to join forces with the Great Heathen Army, wh ...

, Oscytel and Anwend struck out southwards and campaigned against the West Saxons. In the winter of 877–878, Guthrum launched a lightning attack deep into Wessex. There is reason to suspect that this strike was coordinated with the campaigning of a separate Viking force in

Devon Devon ( ; historically also known as Devonshire , ) is a ceremonial county in South West England. It is bordered by the Bristol Channel to the north, Somerset and Dorset to the east, the English Channel to the south, and Cornwall to the west ...

. This latter army is reported to have been destroyed at ' in 878. According to a near-contemporary source, this force was led by a brother of Ivar and Halfdan, and some later sources identify this man as Ubba himself.

Origins of Ubba and the Great Army

In the mid-9th century, an invading Viking army coalesced in Anglo-Saxon England. The earliest version of the 9th- to 12th-century ''

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' is a collection of annals in Old English, chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the ''Chronicle'' was created late in the ninth century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of ...

'' variously describes the invading host as "'", an

Old English Old English ( or , or ), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. It developed from the languages brought to Great Britain by Anglo-S ...

term that can translate as "big army" or "great army". Archaeological evidence and documentary sources suggest that this Great Army was not a single unified force, but more of a composite collection of warbands drawn from different regions. The exact origins of the Great Army are obscure. The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' sometimes identifies the Vikings as Danes. The 10th-century '' Vita Alfredi'' seems to allege that the invaders came from

Denmark Denmark is a Nordic countries, Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the metropole and most populous constituent of the Kingdom of Denmark,, . also known as the Danish Realm, a constitutionally unitary state that includes the Autonomous a ...

. A

n origin may be evinced by the 10th-century ''Chronicon Æthelweardi'', which states that "the fleets of the tyrant Ivar" arrived in Anglo-Saxon England from "the north". By the mid-9th century, this Ivar (died 870/873) was one of the foremost Viking leaders in Britain and Ireland. The Great Army may have included Vikings already active in Anglo-Saxon England, as well as men directly from Scandinavia, Ireland, the Irish Sea region and the Continent. There is reason to suspect that a proportion of the army specifically originated in

. For example, the 9th-century ''

Annales Bertiniani ''Annales Bertiniani'' (''Annals of Saint Bertin'') are late Carolingian, Frankish annals that were found in the Abbey of Saint Bertin, Saint-Omer, France, after which they are named. Their account is taken to cover the period 830-82, thus con ...

'' reveals that Danish Vikings devastated Frisia in 850, and the 12th-century ''Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses'' states that a Viking force of Danes and Frisians made landfall on the

Isle of Sheppey The Isle of Sheppey is an island off the northern coast of Kent, England, neighbouring the Thames Estuary, centred from central London. It has an area of . The island forms part of the districts of England, local government district of Borough ...

in 855. The same source, and the 10th- or 11th-century ''Historia de sancto Cuthberto'', describe Ubba as ' of the Frisians. Whilst the Old English ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' calls the Viking army ', the Latin ''Historia de sancto Cuthberto'' instead gives ', a term of uncertain meaning that is employed three times in reference to the leadership of the Viking forces. One possibility is that the word means "people from the River Scheldt". This could indicate that Ubba was from

Walcheren Walcheren () is a region and former island in the Dutch province of Zeeland at the mouth of the Scheldt estuary. It lies between the Eastern Scheldt in the north and the Western Scheldt in the south and is roughly the shape of a rhombus. The two ...

, an island in the mouth of the Scheldt. Walcheren is known to have been occupied by Danish Vikings over two decades before. For example, the ''Annales Bertiniani'' reports that

Lothair I Lothair I (9th. C. Frankish: ''Ludher'' and Medieval Latin: ''Lodharius''; Dutch and Medieval Latin: ''Lotharius''; German: ''Lothar''; French: ''Lothaire''; Italian: ''Lotario''; 795 – 29 September 855) was a 9th-century emperor of the ...

, King of

Middle Francia Middle Francia () was a short-lived Frankish kingdom which was created in 843 by the Treaty of Verdun after an intermittent civil war between the grandsons of Charlemagne resulted in division of the united empire. Middle Francia was allocated ...

(died 855) granted the island to a Viking named Herioldus in 841. Another possibility is that this term simply refers to Scyldings, an ancient lineage from which Danish monarchs of the time claimed descent. According to the same source and the 9th-century ''Annales Fuldenses'', another Viking named Roricus was granted a large part of Frisia as a benefice or fief from Lothair in 850. As men who held military and judicial authority on behalf of the Franks, Herioldus and Roricus can also be regarded as Frisian '. Although it is uncertain whether Ubba was a native Frisian or a Scandinavian expatriate, if he was indeed involved with a Frisian benefice his forces would have probably been partly composed of Frisians. If his troops were drawn from the Scandinavian settlement started by Herioldus over two decades before, many of Ubba's men might well have been born in Frisia. Woolf (2007) p. 72. In fact, the length of Scandinavian occupation suggests that some of the Vikings from Frisia would have been native Franks and Frisians. The considerable time that members of the Great Army appear to have spent in Ireland and on the Continent suggests that these men were well accustomed to Christian society, which in turn may partly explain their successes in Anglo-Saxon England.

Viking invasion of Anglo-Saxon England

In the autumn of 865, the ''Anglo Saxon Chronicle'' records that the Great Army invaded the

, where they afterwards made peace with the East Anglians and overwintered. The terminology employed by this source suggests the Vikings attacked by sea. The invaders evidently gained valuable intelligence during the stay, as the Great Army is next stated to have left on horses gained from the subordinated population, striking deep into the

, a fractured realm in the midst of a bitter civil war between two competing kings: Ælla (died 867) and Osberht (died 867). Late in 866 the Vikings seized

York York is a cathedral city in North Yorkshire, England, with Roman Britain, Roman origins, sited at the confluence of the rivers River Ouse, Yorkshire, Ouse and River Foss, Foss. It has many historic buildings and other structures, such as a Yor ...

Gore (2016) p. 61; McGuigan (2015) pp. 21–22 n. 10; Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 231 § 867; Gigov (2011) pp. 19, 43 n. 73; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 11, 126, 185; Downham (2007) p. 65; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 69–70; Irvine (2004) p. 48 § 867; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. introduction ¶ 11; Kries (2003) p. 52; Keynes (2001) p. 54; O'Keeffe (2001) p. 58 § 868; Swanton, M (1998) pp. 68–69 § 867; Whitelock (1996) p. 196 § 867; Taylor (1983) p. 34 § 868; Beaven (1918) p. 338; Conybeare (1914) p. 140 § 867; Giles (1914) p. 49 § 867; Gomme (1909) p. 58 § 867; Giles (1903) p. 351 § 867; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 68–69 § 867; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 130–133 § 867/868; Thorpe (1861b) p. 59 § 867; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 43 § 867.—one of only two archiepiscopal sees in Anglo-Saxon England, and one of the richest trading centres in Britain. Although Ælla and Osberht responded to this attack by joining forces against the Vikings, the chronicle indicates that their assault on York was a disaster that resulted in both their deaths. According to ''Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses'', and ''Historia de sancto Cuthberto'', the Northumbrians and their kings were crushed by Ubba himself. Roricus Frisian fiefdom

Also that year, ''Annales Bertiniani'' reports that Charles II, King of West Francia (died 877) paid off a Viking fleet stationed on the

Seine The Seine ( , ) is a river in northern France. Its drainage basin is in the Paris Basin (a geological relative lowland) covering most of northern France. It rises at Source-Seine, northwest of Dijon in northeastern France in the Langres plat ...

. After proceeding down the Seine towards the sea, where they repaired and rebuilt their fleet, a portion of the force is reported to have left for the district of IJssel (either Hollandse IJssel or Gelderse IJssel). Although the destination of the rest of the fleet is unrecorded, one possibility is that it participated in the sack of York. The fact that the Great Army remained in East Anglia for about a year before it attacked Northumbria could mean that it had been reinforced from the Continent during the layover. The part of the fleet that went to Frisia is later stated to have been unable to secure an alliance with Lothair. This statement seems to suggest that these Vikings had intended to acquire a grant of lands in the region, which could mean that they thereafter took part in the Great Army's campaigning across the Channel. Furthermore, ''Annales Bertiniani'' notes that Roricus was forced from Frisia the following year. This ejection could also account for the evidence of a Frisian dimension to the Great Army, and for the attestations of Ubba himself. With the collapse of the Northumbrian kingdom, and the destruction of its regime, the 12th-century '' Historia regum Anglorum'', and ''Libellus de exordio'', reveal that a certain Ecgberht (died 873) was installed by the Vikings as client king over a northern region of Northumbria. In the following year, the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' records that the Great Army attacked

Mercia Mercia (, was one of the principal kingdoms founded at the end of Sub-Roman Britain; the area was settled by Anglo-Saxons in an era called the Heptarchy. It was centred on the River Trent and its tributaries, in a region now known as the Midlan ...

, after which the Vikings seized

Nottingham Nottingham ( , East Midlands English, locally ) is a City status in the United Kingdom, city and Unitary authorities of England, unitary authority area in Nottinghamshire, East Midlands, England. It is located south-east of Sheffield and nor ...

and overwintered there. Although the Mercian and West Saxon kings, Burgred (died 874?) and Æthelred (died 871), responded by joining forces and besieging the occupied town, both the chronicle Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 231 § 868; Gigov (2011) p. 19; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 9, 121 n. 14, 189; Downham (2007) p. 65; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 70–72; Irvine (2004) p. 48 § 868; O'Keeffe (2001) p. 58 § 869; Swanton, M (1998) pp. 68–71 § 868; Whitelock (1996) p. 197 § 868; Taylor (1983) p. 34 § 869; Conybeare (1914) p. 140 § 868; Giles (1914) pp. 49–50 § 868; Gomme (1909) pp. 58–59 § 868; Giles (1903) pp. 351–352 § 868; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 68–71 § 868; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 132–135 § 868/869; Thorpe (1861b) p. 59 § 868; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 43 § 868. and ''Vita Alfredi'' report that this combined Anglo-Saxon force was unable to dislodge the army. Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 30; Smyth (2002) p. 16 ch. 30; Swanton, M (1998) p. 70 n. 1; Whitelock (1996) p. 197 n. 2; Conybeare (1914) pp. 101–102 § 33 ch. 30; Cook (1906) pp. 17–18 ch. 30; Giles (1906) p. 53; Stevenson, WH (1904) pp. 24–25 ch. 30; Stevenson, J (1854) pp. 451–452. According to both sources, the Mercians made peace with the Vikings. It was probably on account of this seemingly purchased peace that the Great Army relocated to York, as reported by the chronicle, where it evidently renewed its strength for future forays.

Hagiographic association with Edmund

The earliest source to make specific note of Ubba is ''Passio sancti Eadmundi'', which includes him in its account of the downfall of Edmund, King of East Anglia (died 869). Almost nothing is known of this king's career, and all that remain of his reign are a few coins. The first contemporary documentary source to cast any light upon his reign is the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''. According to this account, the Great Army invaded East Anglia in the autumn of 869, before setting up winter quarters at

Thetford Thetford is a market town and civil parishes in England, civil parish in the Breckland District of Norfolk, England. It is on the A11 road (England), A11 road between Norwich and London, just east of Thetford Forest. The civil parish, coverin ...

. The chronicle relates that the kingdom was conquered and Edmund was amongst the slain. Although the specific wording employed by most versions of the chronicle suggests that Edmund was killed in battle, and ''Vita Alfredi'' certainly states as much — with neither source making note of a

martyrdom A martyr (, ''mártys'', 'witness' stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external party. In colloqui ...

ordeal — later hagiographical accounts portray the king in an idealised light, and depict his death in the context of a peace-loving Christian monarch, who willingly suffered martyrdom after refusing to shed blood in defence of himself. One such account is ''Passio sancti Eadmundi'', a source that makes no mention of a battle. Whilst this source's claim that Edmund was martyred after being captured is not implausible, the fact that he came to regarded as a martyr does not negate the possibility that he was slain in battle (as suggested by the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''). The apparent contradictory accounts of Edmund's demise given by these sources may stem from the telescoping of events surrounding an East Anglian military defeat and the subsequent capture and execution of the king. In any case, surviving

numismatic Numismatics is the study or collection of currency, including coins, tokens, paper money, medals, and related objects. Specialists, known as numismatists, are often characterized as students or collectors of coins, but the discipline also inclu ...

evidence of coins bearing Edmund's name — the so-called St Edmund memorial coinage — reveals that he was certainly regarded as a saint by about twenty years after his death. The reliability of ''Passio sancti Eadmundi'' is nevertheless uncertain. Although this source was composed over a century after the event, it may convey some credible material as the latest useful source. Nevertheless, there is also reason to suspect that the account is little more than a collection of well-known hagiographical elements, and that the compiler knew little or nothing of Edmund's demise and early cult. The lurid depictions of Viking invaders presented by ''Passio sancti Eadmundi'' appear to owe much to the author's otherwise known association with Fleury, and specifically to the account of the Viking invasion of the Loire Valley detailed in ''Miracula sancti Benedicti'', a 9th-century work composed by the Fleurian monk Adrevaldus (fl. 860s). In specific regard to Ubba, ''Passio sancti Eadmundi'' states that Ivar left him in Northumbria before launching his assault upon the East Angles in 869. If this source is to be believed, it could indicate that Ubba stayed behind to ensure the cooperation of the conquered Northumbrians. Although ''Vita Alfredi'' and the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' fail to note any Viking garrisons in the conquered Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, this may merely be a consequence of their otherwise perceptible West Saxon bias. In contrast to ''Passio sancti Eadmundi'', the 12th-century "F" version of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' specifically identifies Ubba and Ivar as the chiefs of the men who killed the king. Whilst this identification could be derived from ''Passio sancti Eadmundi'' or the 10th-century ''

Lives of the Saints A hagiography (; ) is a biography of a saint or an ecclesiastical leader, as well as, by extension, an adulatory and idealized biography of a preacher, priest, founder, saint, monk, nun or icon in any of the world's religions. Early Christian ...

'', it could merely be a mistake on the chronicler's part. In any case, later and less reliable literature covering the martyrdom associates both men with the event, revealing that this version of events was current as early as the 12th century.

Hagiographic association with Æbbe and Osyth

Ubba is associated with the martyrdom of Æbbe, an alleged

abbess An abbess (Latin: ''abbatissa'') is the female superior of a community of nuns in an abbey. Description In the Catholic Church (both the Latin Church and Eastern Catholic), Eastern Orthodox, Coptic, Lutheran and Anglican abbeys, the mod ...

of Coldingham said to have been slain by Vikings in 870. The historicity of this woman is nevertheless uncertain. The earliest accounts of the alleged events at Coldingham date to the 13th century. They include '' Chronica majora'', and both the Wendover and

Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...

versions of ''Flores historiarum''. According to these sources, Æbbe compelled the

nun A nun is a woman who vows to dedicate her life to religious service and contemplation, typically living under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience in the enclosure of a monastery or convent.''The Oxford English Dictionary'', vol. X, page 5 ...

s of Coldingham to disfigure themselves to preserve their

virginity Virginity is a social construct that denotes the state of a person who has never engaged in sexual intercourse. As it is not an objective term with an operational definition, social definitions of what constitutes virginity, or the lack thereo ...

from an incoming horde of Vikings. Leading by example, Æbbe is said to have cut off her nose and upper lip with a razor. When the Viking arrived the following morning, the sight of the mutilated and bloody women repelled the raiders. Nevertheless, Ivar and Ubba are stated to have ordered the razing of the monastery, burning to death Æbbe and her faithful nuns. Despite many lurid 12th-century tales of ecclesiastical devastation wrought by Vikings, the principal contemporary source for this period, the 9th- or 10th-century "A" version of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', fails to note the destruction of a single Anglo-Saxon church by Scandinavians during the 8th and 9th centuries. Although ''Passio sancti Eadmundi'' presents the invasion of East Anglia by Ubba and Ivar as a campaign of wanton rape and murder, the account does not depict the destruction of the kingdom's monasteries. In fact, there is reason to suspect that most Anglo-Saxon monastic sites probably survived the Viking invasions of the era, and that the East Anglian Church withstood the Viking invasions and occupation. Whilst Viking depredations of monasteries tend not to feature in sources intended for royal audiences, religious desecrations appear in sources composed for ecclesiastical audiences. There are several reasons why 12th-century sources associate the Vikings with seemingly unhistorical atrocities against particular monasteries. For example, such depredations could explain changes in monastic observance, or the switch from monastic- to clerical observance. Stories of Viking attacks could be used as evidence of the former possession of property claimed by religious houses centuries after the fact. The 9th-century Viking onslaught may have also been a way in which 12th-century commentators sought to explain what was regarded as monastic decay in 10th-century Anglo-Saxon England. This imagined or exaggerated religious extirpation could well have been a convenient way of accounting for the scarcity of documentary evidence concerning early religious institutions. Twelfth-century ecclesiastical historians availed themselves of sources such as the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' Barrow (2016) p. 93. and ''Passio sancti Eadmundi''. The fact that the latter was particularly influential to mediaeval historians is evidenced by the frequent occurrences of Ivar and Ubba in reports of religious atrocities. To medieval hagiographers and historians, these two figures were archetypal Viking invaders and emblematic opponents of Christianity. The accounts of Æbbe could be an example of such a constructed tale. The story appears be ultimately derived from the account of Coldingham preserved by the eighth-century '' Historia ecclesiastica''. According to this source, Æthelthryth (died 679), wife of Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria (died 685), entered the monastery under the tutelage of an abbess named Æbbe (died 683?). At some point after Æthelthryth left Coldingham to found a monastery at Ely, ''Historia ecclesiastica'' reports that the monastery of Coldingham burned to the ground. This account of Coldingham's burning was later incorporated into '' Liber Eliensis'', a 12th-century chronicle covering the history of Æthelthryth's establishment at Ely. The account of the burning given by ''Historia ecclesiastica'' may well be the inspiration behind the tale of facial mutilation and fiery martyrdom first associated with Coldingham by the Wendover version of ''Flores historiarum''. To 12th-century ecclesiasts, invented tales of 9th-century violence—particularly violence inflicted by Ivar and Ubba—may have been intended to validate the refoundation of certain religious communities. The earliest Anglo-Saxon virgin-martyr is Osyth. A now-lost 12th-century ' of this woman associated Ivar and Ubba with her seventh-century martyrdom. According to this source, Ivar and Ubba commanded the pirates who beheaded her after she refused to worship their pagan idols. This work may have been the inspiration behind the Anglo-Norman hagiography ''Vie seinte Osith'', a composition that also attributes Osyth's killing to Ivar and Ubba and their followers.

The Great Army after Ivar

The history of East Anglia immediately after Edmund's demise is extremely obscure. The account of events presented by ''Passio sancti Eadmundi'' seems to show that Edmund was killed in the context of the Great Army attempting to impose authority over him and his realm. Such an accommodation appears to have been gained by the Vikings in Northumbria and Mercia. In any case, numismatic evidence appears to indicate that two client kings—a certain Æthelred and Oswald—thereafter ruled over the East Angles on behalf of the Viking conquerors. It is at about this point that Ivar disappears from English history. According to ''Chronicon Æthelweardi'', he died in the same year as Edmund. However, this record may partly stem from the fact that he did not take part in the subsequent war against the

Kingdom of Wessex The Kingdom of the West Saxons, also known as the Kingdom of Wessex, was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom in the south of Great Britain, from around 519 until Alfred the Great declared himself as King of the Anglo-Saxons in 886. The Anglo-Saxons beli ...

, beginning in the autumn or winter of 870. In any case, the leadership of the Great Army appears to have fallen to kings Bagsecg (died 871) and Halfdan (died 877), the first principal Viking leaders attested by all versions of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' after the army's recorded arrival. Lanhill long barrow - geograph

For about a year, the Great Army campaigned against the West Saxons, before overwintering in London. Late in 872, after spending nearly a year in London, the Vikings were drawn back to Northumbria, and afterwards to Mercia. By the end of 874, the kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria were finally broken. At this point, the Great Army split. Whilst Halfdan settled his followers in Northumbria, the army under

(died 890), Oscytel (

fl. ''Floruit'' ( ; usually abbreviated fl. or occasionally flor.; from Latin for 'flourished') denotes a date or period during which a person was known to have been alive or active. In English, the unabbreviated word may also be used as a noun indic ...

875) and Anwend (fl. 875), struck out southwards, and based itself at

Cambridge Cambridge ( ) is a List of cities in the United Kingdom, city and non-metropolitan district in the county of Cambridgeshire, England. It is the county town of Cambridgeshire and is located on the River Cam, north of London. As of the 2021 Unit ...

. In 875, the Vikings invaded Wessex and seized Wareham. Although Alfred, King of Wessex (died 899) sued for peace in 876, the Vikings broke the truce the following year, seized

Exeter Exeter ( ) is a City status in the United Kingdom, cathedral city and the county town of Devon in South West England. It is situated on the River Exe, approximately northeast of Plymouth and southwest of Bristol. In Roman Britain, Exeter w ...

, and were finally forced to withdraw back to Mercia. Although much of Guthrum's army started to settle in Mercia, the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' and ''Vita Alfredi'' reveal that Guthrum launched a surprise attack against the West Saxons in the winter of 877/878. Setting off from their base in

Gloucester Gloucester ( ) is a cathedral city, non-metropolitan district and the county town of Gloucestershire in the South West England, South West of England. Gloucester lies on the River Severn, between the Cotswolds to the east and the Forest of Dean ...

, the latter source specifies that the Vikings drove deep into Wessex, and sacked the royal vill of

Chippenham Chippenham is a market town in north-west Wiltshire, England. It lies north-east of Bath, Somerset, Bath, west of London and is near the Cotswolds Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The town was established on a crossing of the River Avon, ...

. It is possible that this operation was coordinated with another Viking attack in

that culminated in the Battle of ' in 878. Gore (2016) pp. 62–64; Abels (2013) p. 154; Downham (2013a) pp. 23–24; Haslam (2011) p. 202; Downham (2007) p. 204; McLeod, S (2006) pp. 153 n. 72, 154, 154 n. 77; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 76; Gore (2004) p. 37; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) chs. introduction ¶ 11, asser's life of king alfred § 54 n. 99; Smyth (2002) p. 227 n. 164; Kirby (2002) pp. 175, 178; Yorke (1995) p. 111; Kirby (1979).

Battle of '

Most versions of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' locate the battle to Devon. ''Vita Alfredi'' specifies that it was fought at a fortress called ', a name which appears to equate to what is today Countisbury, in

North Devon North Devon is a Non-metropolitan district, local government district in Devon, England. Its council is based just outside Barnstaple, the district's largest town. The district also includes the towns of Ilfracombe, Lynton and Lynmouth and Sout ...

. This source also states that the Vikings made landfall in Devon from a base in

Dyfed Dyfed () is a preserved county in southwestern Wales, covering the modern counties Carmarthenshire, Ceredigion and Pembrokeshire. It is mostly rural area with a coastline on the Irish Sea and the Bristol Channel. Between 1974 and 1996, Dyfed w ...

, where they had previously overwintered. As such, the Viking army could have arrived in Dyfed from Ireland, and overwintered in Wales before striking forth into Devon. The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' does not identify the army's commander by name. It merely describes him as a brother of Ivar and Halfdan, and observes that he was slain in the encounter. Although Ubba is identified as the slain commander by the 12th-century '' Estoire des Engleis'', it is unknown whether this identification is merely an inference by its author, or if it is derived from an earlier source. Lewis (2016) pp. 33–34; Downham (2013a) p. 24 n. 75; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 146; Downham (2007) p. 68 n. 25; Woolf (2007) p. 73 n. 11; Hart, CR (2003) p. 160 n. 3; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 n. 14; Ó Corráin (1979) p. 316. For example, this identification could have been influenced by the earlier association of Ubba and Ivar in the legends surrounding Edmund's martyrdom. In any case, ''Estoire des Engleis'' further specifies that Ubba was slain at "'"—which may refer to Penselwood, near the

Somerset Somerset ( , ), Archaism, archaically Somersetshire ( , , ) is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in South West England. It is bordered by the Bristol Channel, Gloucestershire, and Bristol to the north, Wiltshire to the east ...

–

Wiltshire Wiltshire (; abbreviated to Wilts) is a ceremonial county in South West England. It borders Gloucestershire to the north, Oxfordshire to the north-east, Berkshire to the east, Hampshire to the south-east, Dorset to the south, and Somerset to ...

border—and buried in Devon within a mound called "'". The clash at ' culminated in a West Saxon victory. Whilst ''Vita Alfredi'' attributes the outcome to unnamed

thegn In later Anglo-Saxon England, a thegn or thane (Latin minister) was an aristocrat who ranked at the third level in lay society, below the king and ealdormen. He had to be a substantial landowner. Thanage refers to the tenure by which lands were ...

s of Alfred, ''Chronicon Æthelweardi'' identifies the victorious commander as Odda, Ealdorman of Devon (fl. 878). Most versions of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' number the Viking fleet at twenty-three ships, and most versions number the Viking casualties at eight hundred and forty dead. These numbers roughly give about thirty-six-and-a-half men per ship, which is comparable to the 32-oared Gokstad ship, a 9th-century

Viking ship Viking ships were marine vessels of unique structure, used in Scandinavia throughout the Middle Ages. The boat-types were quite varied, depending on what the ship was intended for, but they were generally characterized as being slender and flexi ...

unearthed in Norway. On one hand, it is possible that the Viking commander at ' seized upon Guthrum's simultaneous campaigning against the West Saxons to launch a Viking foray of his from Dyfed. On the other hand, the location and timing of the engagement at ' may indicate that the slain commander was cooperating with Guthrum. As such, there is reason to suspect that the two Viking armies coordinated their efforts in an attempt to corner Alfred in a

pincer movement The pincer movement, or double envelopment, is a maneuver warfare, military maneuver in which forces simultaneously attack both flanking maneuver, flanks (sides) of an enemy Military organization, formation. This classic maneuver has been im ...

after his defeat at Chippenham and subsequent withdrawal into the wetlands of Somerset. If the Vikings at ' were indeed working in cooperation with those at Chippenham, the record of their presence in Dyfed could also have been related to Guthrum's campaign against Alfred. As such, they could have been campaigning against Hyfaidd ap Bleddri, King of Dyfed (died 892/893) before their attack at '. It is possible that the defeat at ' left Guthrum overextended in Wessex, allowing Alfred's forces to assail Guthrum's exposed lines of communication. Although Alfred's position may have been still perilous in the aftermath, with his contracted kingdom close to collapse, the victory at ' certainly foreshadowed a turn of events for the West Saxons. A few weeks later in May, the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' records that Alfred was able to assemble his troops, and launch a successful attack against Guthrum at Edington. Following Guthrum's crushing defeat, the Vikings were forced to accept Alfred's terms for peace. Guthrum was

baptised Baptism (from ) is a Christians, Christian sacrament of initiation almost invariably with the use of water. It may be performed by aspersion, sprinkling or affusion, pouring water on the head, or by immersion baptism, immersing in water eit ...

as a Christian, and led the remainder of his forces into East Anglia, where they dispersed and settled. Guthrum thereafter kept peace with the West Saxons, and ruled as a Christian king for more than a decade, until his death in 890.

Medieval legend of Ragnar Lodbrok

Although Ubba and Ivar are associated with each other by ''Passio sancti Eadmundi'', the men are not stated to be related in any way. The earliest source claiming kinship between the two is the '' Annals of St Neots'', an 11th- or 12th-century account stating that they were brothers of three daughters of Lodbrok ('). This source further states that these three sisters wove a magical banner named ' that was captured at the ' conflict. Although certain versions of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' also note the capture of a raven banner, named ' ("Raven"), they do not mention any magical attributes, or refer to Lodbrok and his progeny. Lodbrok appears to be an early reference to

Ragnar Lodbrok Ragnar Lodbrok (Old Norse: ''Ragnarr loðbrók'', ), according to legends, was a Viking hero and a Legendary Kings of Sweden, Swedish and Legendary kings of Denmark, Danish king.saga Sagas are prose stories and histories, composed in Iceland and to a lesser extent elsewhere in Scandinavia. The most famous saga-genre is the (sagas concerning Icelanders), which feature Viking voyages, migration to Iceland, and feuds between ...

character of dubious historicity, who could be an amalgam of several historical 9th-century figures. According to Scandinavian sources, Ragnar Lodbrok was a Scandinavian of royal stock, whose death at the hands of Ælla in Northumbria was the catalyst of the invasion of Anglo-Saxon England—and Ælla's own destruction—by Ragnar Lodbrok's vengeful sons. None of the saga-sources for the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok accord him a son that corresponds to Ubba. The latter is only specifically attested by sources dealing with the East Scandinavian tradition. One of these sources is the 13th-century '' Gesta Danorum''. According to this text, Ubba was the son of Ragnar Lodbrok and an unnamed daughter of a certain Hesbernus. ''Gesta Danorum'' does not associate Ubba with Anglo-Saxon England in any way. Whitelock (1969) p. 227. According to the 13th- or 14th-century ''

Ragnarssona þáttr The ''Tale of Ragnar's sons'' () is an Old Norse story about Ragnar Lodbrok and his sons. Summary Ragnar Lodbrok When Sigurd Ring dies, Ragnar Lodbrok succeeds him as the king of Sweden and Denmark. Many foreign kings come to take parts of hi ...

'', a source that forms part of the West Scandinavian tradition, Ivar had two bastard brothers, Yngvar and Husto, who tortured Edmund on Ivar's instructions. No other source mentions these sons. It is possible that these figures represent Ivar and Ubba, and that the composer of ''Ragnarssona þáttr'' failed to recognise the names of Ivar and Ubba in English sources concerned with the legend of Edmund's martyrdom. Whilst Scandinavian sources—such as the 13th-century '' Ragnars saga loðbrókar''—tend to locate the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok in a Northumbrian context, English sources tend to place them in an East Anglian setting. The earliest source to specifically associate the legend with East Anglia is ''Liber de infantia sancti Eadmundi'', a 12th-century account depicting the Viking invasion of East Anglia in the context of a dynastic dispute. Frantzen (2004) p. 64. According to this source, Lodbrok (') was extremely envious of Edmund's fame. As such, it is Lodbrok's taunts that provoke his sons, Ivar, Ubba and Björn ('), to slay Edmund and destroy his kingdom. Although this text is heavily dependent upon ''Passio sancti Eadmundi'' for its depiction of Edmund's death, it appears to be the first source to meld the martyrdom with the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok. Bloody Corner - geograph

By the 13th century an alternate rendition of the story appears in sources such as ''Chronica majora'', and both the Wendover and Paris versions of ''Flores historiarum''. For example, the Wendover account states that Lodbrok (') washed ashore in East Anglia, where he was honourably received by Edmund, but afterwards murdered by Björn ('), an envious huntsman. Although the latter is expelled from the realm, he convinces Lodbrok's sons, Ivar and Ubba, that the killer of their father was Edmund. As such, East Anglia is invaded by these two sons, and Edmund is killed in a case of misplaced vengeance. A slightly different version of events is offered by ''Estoire des Engleis'', which states that the Vikings invaded Northumbria on behalf of Björn ('), who sought vengeance for the rape of his wife by the Northumbrian king, Osberht. Parker, E (2016) pp. 432–433; McTurk, R (2015) p. 215; Parker, E (2014) p. 489; Parker, EC (2012) pp. 97, 102, 168, 206; Kries (2003) p. 67; Whitelock (1969) pp. 229–230; Short (2009) pp. 142–149 §§ 2595–2722; Sayers (2003) p. 305; Freeman (1996) p. 199; Bell (1932) pp. 169–170; Hardy; Martin (1889) pp. 84–88 §§ 2597–2724; Hardy; Martin (1888) pp. 104–112 §§ 2597–2724; Stevenson, J (1854) pp. 760–761; Wright (1850) pp. 89–93 §§ 2597–2724. On one hand, it is possible that the theme of vengeance directed at Edmund is derived from the tradition of Ælla's demise in Northumbria at the hands of Ragnar's progeny. On the other hand, the revenge motifs and miraculous maritime journeys presented in the accounts of Edmund are well-known elements commonly found in contemporaneous

chivalric romance As a literary genre, the chivalric romance is a type of prose and verse narrative that was popular in the noble courts of high medieval and early modern Europe. They were fantastic stories about marvel-filled adventures, often of a chivalri ...

s. There is reason to suspect that the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok originated from attempts to explain why the Vikings came to settle in Anglo-Saxon England. The core of the tradition may have been constructed as a way to rationalise their arrival without assigning blame to either side (as illustrated by the sympathetic Wendover account). As such, the legend could have been intended to justify Edmund's violent demise. The tales may have evolved at an early stage of Viking settlement, and may have functioned as an

origin myth An origin myth is a type of myth that explains the beginnings of a natural or social aspect of the world. Creation myths are a type of origin myth narrating the formation of the universe. However, numerous cultures have stories that take place a ...

of the emerging Anglo-Scandinavian culture. The shared kinship assigned to Ivar and Ubba within the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok may stem from their combined part in Edmund's downfall as opposed to any historical familial connection.

In popular culture

Ubba appears as a character in modern historical fiction. For example, the unnamed Danish king that appears in '' Alfred: A Masque'', a musical play with a

libretto A libretto (From the Italian word , ) is the text used in, or intended for, an extended musical work such as an opera, operetta, masque, oratorio, cantata or Musical theatre, musical. The term ''libretto'' is also sometimes used to refer to th ...

by James Thomson (died 1748) and David Mallet (died 1765)—first presented in 1740—may be a composite of Ubba, Guthrum, Ivar and Halfdan. Ubba certainly appears in ''Alfred the Great, Deliverer of His Country'', an anonymous play that first appears on record in 1753; and ''The Magick Banner; or, Two Wives in a House'', a play by John O'Keeffe (died 1833), first presented in 1796. He also appears in the ''Sketch of Alfred the Great: Or, the Danish Invasion'', a

ballet Ballet () is a type of performance dance that originated during the Italian Renaissance in the fifteenth century and later developed into a concert dance form in France and Russia. It has since become a widespread and highly technical form of ...

by Mark Lonsdale, first performed in 1798; and ''Alfred; An Epic Poem'', a long piece of

epic poetry In poetry, an epic is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. With regard t ...

by Henry James Pye (died 1813), published in 1801; and the similarly named ''Alfred, an Epic Poem'', by Joseph Cottle (died 1853)—a poem almost twice as long as Pye's—first published in 1800. Ubba later appears in ''Alfred the Great; Or, The Enchanted Standard'', a musical drama by Isaac Pocock (died 1835), based upon O'Keeffe's play, and first performed in 1827; and ''Alfred the Great'', a play by James Magnus, dating to 1838. He further appears in ''Alfred of Wessex'', an epic poem by Richard Kelsey, published in 1852; and in the 1899 novel ''King Alfred's Viking'', by Charles Whistler (died 1913); and the 2004 novel '' The Last Kingdom'' by

Bernard Cornwell Bernard Cornwell (born 23 February 1944) is an English author of historical novels and a history of the Waterloo Campaign. He is best known for his long-running series of novels about Napoleonic Wars rifleman Richard Sharpe. He has also writ ...

. Ubba is also a character in ''

Vikings Vikings were seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway, and Sweden), who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded, and settled throughout parts of Europe.Roesdahl, pp. 9� ...

'', a television series first aired on the

History History is the systematic study of the past, focusing primarily on the Human history, human past. As an academic discipline, it analyses and interprets evidence to construct narratives about what happened and explain why it happened. Some t ...

network in 2013. His name was changed to Ubbe, and he was portrayed by Jordan Patrick Smith from season 4B through the end. In 2015,

BBC Two BBC Two is a British free-to-air Public service broadcasting in the United Kingdom, public broadcast television channel owned and operated by the BBC. It is the corporation's second flagship channel, and it covers a wide range of subject matte ...

released '' The Last Kingdom'', a fictional television series (based upon Cornwell's '' The Saxon Chronicles'' series of novels). It was later aired on Netflix. Although the series and many of its characters were based on real events and people, the series also contains fictional events. The character was portrayed a little differently than the real-life Ubba. Ubba is played by actor Rune Temte. Ubba, Halfdan and Ivar the Boneless appear in the Ubisoft video game ''

Assassin's Creed Valhalla ''Assassin's Creed Valhalla'' is a 2020 action role-playing game developed by Ubisoft Montreal and published by Ubisoft. It is the twelfth major installment in the ''Assassin's Creed'' series, and the successor to 2018's ''Assassin's Creed Odyss ...

'' as brothers, sharing significant roles in the story of Viking conquests of England during the 9th century.

Notes

Citations

References

Primary sources

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Secondary sources

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External links

* {{Viking Invasion of England 878 deaths 9th-century Vikings Viking warriors Vikings killed in battle Year of birth unknown Dukes of Frisia