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Tukaram (Marathi pronunciation: ̪ukaːɾam, also known as Tuka, Tukobaraya and Tukoba, was a Hindu Marathi saint of the Warkari sampradaya in Dehu village, Maharashtra in the 17th century. He was a '' bhakt'' of the god Vithoba, also known as Vitthal, of
Pandharpur Pandharpur City (Pronunciation: Help:IPA/Marathi, əɳɖʱəɾpuːɾ is a popular pilgrimage town, on the banks of Chandrabhaga River, Chandrabhagā River, near Solapur, Solapur city in Solapur district, Solapur District, Maharashtra, Ind ...
. He is best known for his devotional poetry called Abhanga, which are popular in Maharashtra, many of his poems deal with social reform.Anna Schultz (2012), Singing a Hindu Nation: Marathi Devotional Performance and Nationalism, Oxford University Press, , page 62 His poems are included in the school and college syllabuses prominently in the state of Maharashtra.


Biography


Early life

Tukaram was born in modern-day Maharashtra state of India. His complete name was Tukaram Bolhoba Ambile. He spent most of his later years in devotional worship, community kirtans (group prayers with singing) and composing Abhanga poetry.Eleanor Zelliot (1976), Hinduism: New Essays in the History of Religions (Editor: Bardwell L Smith), Brill Academic, , pages 154-156 Tukaram pointed out the evil of wrongdoings of society, social system and Maharajs by his and . He faced some opposition in society because of this. A man named Mambaji harassed him a lot, he was running a in Dehu and had some followers. Initially Tukaram gave him the job of doing puja at his temple, but he was jealous of Tukaram by seeing Tukaram getting respect among the village people. He once hit Tukaram by thorn's stick. He used foul language against Tukaram. Later Mambaji also became admirer of Tukaram. He became his devotee. Tukaram met Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj – a leader who founded the
Maratha Empire The Maratha Empire, also referred to as the Maratha Confederacy, was an early modern India, early modern polity in the Indian subcontinent. It comprised the realms of the Peshwa and four major independent List of Maratha dynasties and states, Ma ...
; Their continued interaction is the subject of legends.Justin Edwards Abbott (2000), Life of Tukaram, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 320 Eleanor Zelliot states that
Bhakti movement The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of Bhakti, devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6t ...
poets including Tukaram were influential in Shivaji's rise to power. It is also happened that Tukaram Maharaj saved Chhatrapati Shivaji's life from the chasing Mughals. It is agreed by historians that Saint Tukaram died in 1650.


Philosophy and practices


Vedanta

In his work of ''Abhangas'', Tukarama repeatedly refers to four people who had a primary influence on his spiritual development, namely the earlier Bhakti Sants '' Namdev'', ''
Dnyaneshwar Sant Dnyaneshwar (Marathi pronunciation: ̪ɲaːn̪eʃʋəɾ, (Devanagari : सन्त ज्ञानेश्वर), also referred to as Jñāneśvara, Jñānadeva, Dnyandev or Mauli or Dnyaneshwar Vitthal Kulkarni (1275–1296 (living ...
'', '' Kabir'' and '' Eknath''. Early 20th-century scholars on Tukaram considered his teachings to be
Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; , ), also known as ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six orthodox (Āstika and nāstika, ''āstika'') traditions of Hindu philosophy and textual exegesis. The word ''Vedanta'' means 'conclusion of the Vedas', and encompa ...
-based but lacking a systematic theme. JF Edwards wrote, Late 20th-century scholarship of Tukaram, and translations of his ''Abhanga'' poem, affirm his pantheistic Vedantic view. Tukaram's Abhanga 2877, as translated by Shri Gurudev Ranade of Nimbal states, for example, "The Vedanta has said that the whole universe is filled by God. All sciences have proclaimed that God has filled the whole world. The Puranas have unmistakably taught the universal immanence of God. The sants have told us that the world is filled by God. Tuka indeed is playing in the world uncontaminated by it like the Sun which stands absolutely transcendent". Scholars note the often discussed controversy, particularly among Marathi people, whether Tukaram subscribed to the monistic Vedanta philosophy of
Adi Shankara Adi Shankara (8th c. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya (, ), was an Indian Vedanga, Vedic scholar, Hindu philosophy, philosopher and teacher (''acharya'') of Advaita Vedanta. Reliable information on Shankara's actual life is scant, and h ...
.R G Bhandarkar (2014), Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems, Routledge, , pages 98-99 Bhandarkar notes that Abhanga 300, 1992 and 2482 attributed to Tukaram are in style and philosophy of Adi Shankara: However, scholars also note that other Abhangas attributed to Tukaram criticize monism, and favor dualistic Vedanta philosophy of the Indian philosophers
Madhvacharya Madhvacharya (; ; 1199–1278 CE or 1238–1317 CE), also known as Purna Prajna () and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the ''Dvaita'' (dualism) school of Vedanta. Madhva called his philosophy ...
and Ramanuja. In Abhanga 1471, according to Bhandarkar's translation, Tukaram says, "When monism is expounded without faith and love, the expounder as well as the hearer are troubled and afflicted. He who calls himself Brahma and goes on in his usual way, should not be spoken to and is a buffoon. The shameless one who speaks heresy in opposition to the
Vedas FIle:Atharva-Veda samhita page 471 illustration.png, upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the ''Atharvaveda''. The Vedas ( or ; ), sometimes collectively called the Veda, are a large body of relig ...
is an object of scorn among holy men." Tukaram denounced mechanical rites, rituals, sacrifices, vows and instead encouraged direct form of bhakti (devotion).


Kirtan

Tukaram encouraged kirtan as a music imbued, community-oriented group singing and dancing form of
bhakti ''Bhakti'' (; Pali: ''bhatti'') is a term common in Indian religions which means attachment, fondness for, devotion to, trust, homage, worship, piety, faith, or love.See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. In Indian religions, it ...
. He considered kirtan not just a means to learn about Bhakti, but Bhakti itself. The greatest merit in kirtan, according to Tukaram, is it being not only a spiritual path for the devotee, it helps create a spiritual path for others.Anna Schultz (2012), Singing a Hindu Nation: Marathi Devotional Performance and Nationalism, Oxford University Press, , pages 25-28


Social reforms

Tukaram accepted disciples and devotees without discriminating on the basis of gender. One of his celebrated devotees was Bahina Bai, a Brahmin woman, who faced anger and abuse of her husband when she chose Bhakti marga and Tukaram as her ''guru''. Tukaram taught, states Ranade, that "pride of caste never made any man holy", "the Vedas and Shastras have said that for the service of God, castes do not matter", "castes do not matter, it is God's name that matters", and "an outcast who loves the Name of God is verily a Brahmin; in him have tranquility, forbearance, compassion and courage made their home". However, early 20th century scholars questioned whether Tukaram himself observed caste when his daughters from his second wife married men of their own caste. Fraser and Edwards, in their 1921 review of Tukaram, stated that this is not necessarily so, because people in the West too generally prefer relatives to marry those of their own economic and social strata.The Life and Teaching of Tukaram
J Nelson Fraser, and JF Edwards, Probsthain, Christian Literature Society, pages 163, 54-55
David Lorenzen states that the acceptance, efforts and reform role of Tukaram in the ''Varakari-sampraday'' follows the diverse caste and gender distributions found in Bhakti movements across India. The rest include ten Brahmins and two whose caste origins are unknown. Of the twenty one, four women are celebrated as sant, born in two Brahmin and two non-Brahmin families. Tukaram's effort at social reforms within ''Varakari-sampraday'' must be viewed in this historical context and as part of the overall movement, states Lorenzen. David Lorenzen (2006), Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, , pages 127-128


Literary works

Tukaram composed Abhanga poetry, a Marathi genre of literature which is metrical (traditionally the ''ovi'' meter), simple, direct, and it fuses folk stories with deeper spiritual themes. Tukaram's work is known for informal verses of rapturous abandon in folksy style, composed in vernacular language, in contrast to his predecessors such as Dnyandeva or Namdev known for combining similar depth of thought with a grace of style. In one of his poems, Tukaram self-effacingly described himself as a "fool, confused, lost, liking solitude because I am wearied of the world, worshipping Vitthal (Vishnu) just like my ancestors were doing but I lack their faith and devotion, and there is nothing holy about me". ''Tukaram Gatha'' is a Marathi language compilation of his works, likely composed between 1632 and 1650.Mohan Lal (1993), Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot, Sahitya Akademi, South Asia Books, , pages 4404-4405 Also called ''Abhanga Gatha'', the Indian tradition believes it includes some 4,500 ''abhangas''. The poems considered authentic cover a wide range of human emotions and life experiences, some autobiographical, and places them in a spiritual context. He includes a discussion about the conflict between ''Pravritti'' – having passion for life, family, business, and ''Nivritti'' – the desire to renounce, leave everything behind for individual liberation,
moksha ''Moksha'' (; , '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'', and ''mukti'', is a term in Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, liberation, '' nirvana'', or release. In its soteriological and eschatologic ...
. Ranade states there are four major collations of Tukaram's Abhanga Gathas.


Authenticity

The first compilation of Tukaram poems was published, in modern format, by Indu Prakash publishers in 1869, subsidized by the British colonial government's Bombay Presidency.The Life and Teaching of Tukaram
J Nelson Fraser, and JF Edwards, Probsthain, Christian Literature Society, pages 119-124
The 1869 edition noted, "some of the s receivedmanuscripts on which the compilation relied, had been 'corrected', 'further corrected' and 'arranged'." This doctoring and rewriting over about 200 years, after Tukaram's death, has raised questions whether the modern compilation of Tukaram's poems faithfully represents what Tukaram actually thought and said, and the
historicity Historicity is the historical actuality of persons and events, meaning the quality of being part of history instead of being a historical myth, legend, or fiction. The historicity of a claim about the past is its factual status. Historicity deno ...
of the document. The known manuscripts are jumbled, randomly scattered collections, without chronological sequence, and each contains some poems that are not found in all other known manuscripts.


Books and translations

The 18th-century biographer Mahipati, in his four volume compilation of the lives of many
Bhakti movement The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of Bhakti, devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6t ...
sants, included Tukaram. Mahipati's treatise has been translated by Justin Abbott. A translation of about 3,700 poems from Tukaram Gatha in English was published, in three volumes, between 1909 and 1915, by Fraser and Marathe. In 1922, Fraser and Edwards published his biography and religious ideas incorporating some translations of Tukaram's poems, and included a comparison of Tukaram's philosophy and theology with those of Christianity. Deleury, in 1956, published a metric French translation of a selection of Tukaram's poem along with an introduction to the religious heritage of Tukaram (Deleury spells him as ''Toukaram''). Arun Kolatkar published, in 1966, six volumes of avant-garde translations of Tukaram poems. Ranade has published a critical biography and some selected translation. Dilip Chitre translated writings of Sant Tukaram into English in the book titled ''Says Tuka'' for which he was awarded the ''Sahitya Akademi'' award in 1994. A selection of poems of Tukaram has been translated and published by Daniel Ladinsky. Chandrakant Kaluram Mhatre has translated selected poems of Tukaram, published as '' One Hundred Poems of Tukaram''.


Legacy


Maharashtra society

Tukaram's abhangs are very popular in Maharashtra. It became part of the culture of the state. Varkaris, poets and peoples study his poems. His poems are popular in rural Maharashtra and their popularity is increasing. Tukaram was a devotee of Vithoba ''(''Vitthala'')'', an
avatar Avatar (, ; ) is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means . It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearance" is sometimes u ...
of God
Vishnu Vishnu (; , , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism, and the god of preservation ( ...
, synchronous with
Krishna Krishna (; Sanskrit language, Sanskrit: कृष्ण, ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God (Hinduism), Supreme God in his own right. He is the god of protection, c ...
but with regional style and features. Tukaram's literary works, along with those of sants Dnyandev, Namdev and Eknath, states Mohan Lal, are credited to have propelled Varkari tradition into pan-Indian Bhakti literature. According to Richard Eaton, from early 14th-century when Maharashtra region came under the rule of the
Delhi Sultanate The Delhi Sultanate or the Sultanate of Delhi was a Medieval India, late medieval empire primarily based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for more than three centuries.
, down to the 17th-century, the legacy of Tukaram and his poet-predecessors, "gave voice to a deep-rooted collective identity among Marathi-speakers". Dilip Chitre summarizes the legacy of Tukaram and
Bhakti movement The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of Bhakti, devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6t ...
sants, during this period of Hindu-Muslim wars, as transforming "language of shared religion, and religion a shared language. It is they who helped to bind the Marathas together against the Mughals on the basis not of any religious ideology but of a territorial cultural identity".


Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (2October 186930January 1948) was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalism, anti-colonial nationalist, and political ethics, political ethicist who employed nonviolent resistance to lead the successful Indian ...
, in early 20th century, while under arrest in Yerwada Central Jail by the British colonial government for his non-violent movement, read and translated Tukaram's poetry along with
Upanishad The Upanishads (; , , ) are late Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts that "document the transition from the archaic ritualism of the Veda into new religious ideas and institutions" and the emergence of the central religious concepts of Hind ...
s,
Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita (; ), often referred to as the Gita (), is a Hindu texts, Hindu scripture, dated to the second or first century BCE, which forms part of the Hindu epic, epic poem Mahabharata. The Gita is a synthesis of various strands of Ind ...
and poems by other Bhakti movement poet-saints.MK Gandhi (1930), Songs from prison: translations of Indian Lyrics made in Jail, (Adapted and formatted by John Hoyland, 1934), New York : Macmillan, Sant Tukaram also had a profound influence on K. B. Hedgewar as the former's quotes often found their way on the latter's letterhead. One such letter dated April 6, 1940 bore the quote "Daya tiche nanwa bhutanche palan, aanik nirdalan kantkache", meaning compassion is not only the welfare of all living beings, but also includes protecting them from harm's way.


Places associated with Tukaram

Places associated with Tukaram in Dehu that exist today are: *Tukaram Maharaj Janm Sthan Temple, Dehu – place where Tukaramji was born, around which a temple was built later *Sant Tukaram Vaikunthstan Temple, Dehu – from where Tukaramji ascended to Vaikuntha (Abode of God) in his mortal form; there is a beautiful ghat behind this temple along the Indrayani river *Sant Tukaram Maharaj Gatha Mandir, Dehu – modern structure; massive building housing a big statue of Tukaram; In the Gatha temple, about 4,000 abhangs (verses) created by Tukaram maharaj were carved on the walls.


Movies and popular culture

A number of Indian films have been made about the saint in different languages. These include: *''Tukaram'' (1921) silent film by Shinde. *''Sant Tukaram'' (1921) silent film by Kalanidhi Pictures. *'' Sant Tukaram'' (1936) – this movie on Tukaram was screened open-air for a year, to packed audiences in
Mumbai Mumbai ( ; ), also known as Bombay ( ; its official name until 1995), is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. Mumbai is the financial capital and the most populous city proper of India with an estimated population of 12 ...
, and numerous rural people would walk very long distances to see it. *'' Thukkaram'' (1938) in Tamil by B. N. Rao. *'' Santha Thukaram'' (1963) in Kannada *''Sant Tukaram'' (1965) in Hindi *'' Bhakta Tukaram'' (1973) in Telugu *'' Tukaram'' (2012) in Marathi Tukaram's life was the subject of the 68th issue of Amar Chitra Katha, India's largest comic book series. Balbharti has included a poem of Tukaram in a Marathi school textbook The government of India had issued a 100 rupee Silver commemorative coin in 2002.


See also

*
Bhakti movement The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of Bhakti, devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6t ...
* Pandharpur Wari – the largest annual pilgrimage in Maharashtra that includes a ceremonial '' Palkhi'' of Tukaram * Vitthal Temple, Pandharpur * Sant
Dnyaneshwar Sant Dnyaneshwar (Marathi pronunciation: ̪ɲaːn̪eʃʋəɾ, (Devanagari : सन्त ज्ञानेश्वर), also referred to as Jñāneśvara, Jñānadeva, Dnyandev or Mauli or Dnyaneshwar Vitthal Kulkarni (1275–1296 (living ...


References


Works cited

* * * * * *


General references

* * "Tryambak Shankar Shejwalkar Nivadak Lekhsangrah" by T S Shejwalkar (collection- H V Mote, Introduction- G D Khanolkar)


Further reading

* John Hoyland (1932), An Indian Peasant Mystic: Translations from Tukaram, London: Allenson, * Wilbur Deming (1932), Selections from Tukaram, Christian Literature Society, * Prabhakar Machwe (1977), Tukaram's Poems, United Writer, * Dilip Chitre (1970), The Bhakta as a Poet: Six Examples from Tukaram's Poetry, ''Delos: A Journal on and of Translation'', Vol. 4, pages 132-136 * * Fraser and Marathe (1915), The Poems of Tukaram, 3 vols, Christian Literature Society , Reprinted in 1981 by Motilal Banarsidass,


External links

*
Collected works of Tukaram in DevnagariSant Tukaram Gatha
at Internet Archive

Ram Bapat (2002), Tukaram Online, 14 Indian and 8 foreign languages
What I Want to Say, Tukaram
Mona van Duyn (1965), Poetry, Vol. 107, No. 2, pages 102-104
Twenty five poems, Tukaram
Prabhakar Machwe (1968), Mahfil, Vol. 5, No. 1/2, pages 61–69
Translations from Tukaram and other saint-poets
Awad Kolatkar (1982), Journal of South Asian Literature, Vol. 17, No. 1, pages 111-114 {{Authority control 1577 births 1650 deaths Warkari Sant Mat gurus Marathi-language poets Sant Mat 17th-century Hindu religious leaders Vaishnava saints Scholars from Maharashtra Poets from Maharashtra Marathi Hindu saints