Tsuchigumo (play)

is a historical Japanese derogatory term for renegade local clans, primarily during the Asuka, Nara, and early Heian periods, and also the name for a race of spider-like in Japanese folklore. Alternative names for the historical groups include , Takioto Yoshiyuki, in Matsueda Itaru (ed.)「土蜘蛛の原義について」(On the original meaning of Tsuchigumo)『象徴図像研究：動物と象徴』(Symbolic Iconography Research: Animals and Symbols) 言叢社 (Gensōsha), 2006 ISBN 4-86209-007-9 pp.79-100. and for the mythological ''Tsuchigumo'', and . In the ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', the name was phonetically spelled with the four kanji (for the four morae ''tsu-chi-gu-mo''). References to "tsuchigumo" appear in the chronicles associated with Emperor Jimmu, and Empress Jingū, and these words were frequently used in the (ancient reports on provincial culture, geography, and oral tradition) of various provinces, including Mutsu, Echigo, Hitachi, Settsu, Bungo, and Hizen.

The term "Tsuchigumo" (earth/dirt spider) is believed to be derived from an older derogatory term, , meaning "those who hide in the ground". This name likely referred to the fact that many of these clans utilized existing cave systems or built fortified dugouts and earthworks (Japanese: 土窟; tsuchi-muro or iwa-muro) in which to live and defend themselves. The term was used by the Yamato court as a generalized pejorative against chieftains and clans who would not submit to Imperial authority, regardless of their ancestry or location. They were often described in official records like the ''Nihon Shoki'' and various ''Fudoki'' as possessing "the nature of a wolf, the heart of an owl," being violently resistant, and dwelling in mountain caves or earthen fortifications. Some descriptions portrayed them as having abnormal physical characteristics; the "Jimmu" chapter of the ''Nihon Shoki'' describes them as "short in stature but long in limbs, similar to pygmies (侏儒)," while an excerpt from the lost ''Echigo Fudoki'' mentions Tsuchigumo with "shins eight 'tsuka' and-breadthslong, and possessing great strength." These descriptions likely served to dehumanize these groups and emphasize their "otherness" from the perspective of the Yamato state.

Historian Sōkichi Tsuda ( ja) pointed out that, unlike terms like Kumaso and Emishi which referred to distinct groups, "Tsuchigumo" as used in the ''Fudoki'' often appears as the designation for specific individuals rather than entire peoples. Historian Yoshiyuki Takioto ( ja) further suggests that these individuals were likely local chieftains whose power stemmed from shamanistic authority. This is supported by accounts in the Kyushu ''Fudoki'' where certain Tsuchigumo figures appear as priests or mediums involved in agricultural rituals or appeasing angered deities ().

The transformation of the Tsuchigumo into a monstrous, giant spider-like occurred during the Japanese medieval period (late 12th to early 17th centuries). One of the earliest and most influential depictions is found in variant texts of ''The Tale of the Heike'', particularly the "Sword Scroll" (), which was compiled in the early 13th century. In this version, the creature is called a , and its defeat by the hero Minamoto no Yorimitsu gives rise to the legend of his sword, Kumo-kiri ("Spider-Cutter"). As depictions evolved through later periods, the Tsuchigumo became increasingly bizarre and monstrous. The 14th-century (picture scroll) ''Tsuchigumo Sōshi'' portrays it as a colossal monster, and stories involving its extermination often feature Yorimitsu and his legendary retainer Watanabe no Tsuna, heroes also famous for defeating the powerful Shuten-dōji. The yōkai Tsuchigumo became a popular subject in Noh theatre, Jōruri puppet plays, and Kabuki. It's important to note that the historical Tsuchigumo have no direct connection to the actual ground spider species (''Antrodiaetus japonicus''). Similarly, the modern Japanese common name for tarantulas (Ōtsuchigumo-ka, オオツチグモ科, ''Theraphosidae'') was inspired by the mythological creature but has no historical link, as tarantulas are not native to Japan.

In history

References to Tsuchigumo appear across Japan, indicating the term was applied to various local powers resisting Yamato authority. Historical records mention Tsuchigumo in at least seven locations in Hitachi province, six in Bungo, twelve in Hizen, two in Mutsu, and one in Hyūga, primarily in Kyushu, Tōhoku, and Kantō regions. Around 45 individual chieftain names associated with Tsuchigumo are recorded, among which 14 include titles like "me" (女, woman), "hime" (姫/媛, princess), suggesting female leadership was not uncommon, particularly in Hizen. Examples include Ōyamada-me (大山田女), Sayamada-me (狭山田女), Yasome (八十女), and Hayakitsu-hime (速来津姫).�
三島神社
��. ''広田地区自治協議議会'' The '' Hitachi no Kuni Fudoki'' explicitly states that "Kuzu" and "Tsuchigumo" were synonymous terms in that region.

Yamato Province

The Tsuchigumo of the Katsuragi region in Yamato Province (modern Nara Prefecture) are particularly well-known. According to the ''Nihon Shoki'', Emperor Jimmu defeated several Tsuchigumo groups during his eastward expedition. These included figures named Niki Tobe (新城戸畔) at Hataoka-no-saki, Kose Hafuri (居勢祝) at Wani-no-saka-no-shita, and Ihafuri (猪祝) at Hetsugi-no-nagae-no-oka-no-saki. He is also said to have defeated Tsuchigumo at Takaowari village by weaving a net of katsura vines (葛), subsequently renaming the area Katsuragi (葛城). The Tsuchigumo of Takaowari were described as having small bodies and long limbs. Katsuragi Hitokotonushi Shrine (葛城一言主神社) features a "Tsuchigumo塚" (tsuka, mound), said to be where Jimmu buried the head, body, and feet of captured Tsuchigumo separately to prevent their vengeful spirits () from harming the living.

A unique physical characteristic attributed to the indigenous people of Yamato in early chronicles was the possession of tails. The ''Nihon Shoki'' describes the ancestor of the Yoshino no Futo (吉野首) clan as "glowing, with a tail," and the ancestor of the Yoshino no Kuzu (国樔) as "having a tail and pushing aside rocks." Similarly, the ''Kojiki'' refers to the people of Osaka (忍坂, modern Sakurai city) as "Tsuchigumo who have tails grown." These descriptions likely served to portray the pre-Yamato inhabitants as non-human or primitive.

Other Regions and Emperor Keiko's Campaigns

Several accounts detail conflicts during the reign of Emperor Keiko (traditionally 71–130 AD):

* Hizen Province: The ''Hizen no Kuni Fudoki'' records that during an imperial visit to Shiki island (志式島, likely part of modern Hirado Island) around year 72, smoke was seen rising from nearby islands. Investigation revealed Tsuchigumo named Ōmimi (大耳) on the smaller island and Taremimi (垂耳) on the larger one. When captured and facing execution, they prostrated themselves, offered fish products, and pledged allegiance, thus securing their pardon. The same text relates the story of Tsuchigumo Yasome (土蜘蛛八十女) in Kijima county. "Yaso" (八十) means "eighty" but here signifies "many," suggesting multiple female leaders resisted the Yamato forces. Yasome, popular among her people, reportedly fortified herself in the mountains but was ultimately defeated and her forces annihilated. This story is often interpreted as representing the heroic but tragic resistance of female chieftains against Yamato expansion. It's noted that another local female leader reported Yasome's location to the emperor and was spared for her cooperation. Conversely, Hayakitsu-hime (速来津姫) of Hayaki in Sonogi county submitted peacefully to Emperor Keiko, offering three valuable pearls (natural pearls called shiratama, isonokami mokurenji-tama, utsukushiki-tama).�
土蜘蛛（彼杵郡）
��. ''古代土蜘蛛一覧''

* Bungo Province: The ''Bungo no Kuni Fudoki'' mentions numerous Tsuchigumo figures: Itsuma-hime (五馬姫) of Itsuma mountain (五馬山); Uchisaru (打猴), Unasaru (頸猴), Yata (八田), and Kunimaro (國摩侶) of Negi field (禰宜野); Shinokaomi (小竹鹿臣) and Shinokaosa (小竹鹿奥) of Amashi field (網磯野); and Ao (青) and Shiro (白) of Nezumi cavern (鼠の磐窟).

* Nihon Shoki Account (Keiko): According to the ''Nihon Shoki'', in the winter of the 12th year of Emperor Keiko's reign (legendary year 82), the emperor arrived in Hayami town, Ōkita county (modern Ōita Prefecture). The local queen, Hayatsuhime (速津媛), informed him of two Tsuchigumo named Ao (青) and Shiro (白) living in the nearby Nezumi cave (鼠の石窟, Rat Cave). She also reported three more Tsuchigumo in Naoiri county's Negino (禰疑野) field: Uchizaru (打猿), Yata (八田), and Kunimaro (国摩侶, 国麻呂). These five were described as powerful, having many allies, and refusing to obey imperial commands.

* Chikugo Province: The ''Nihon Shoki'' records that in the 3rd month of the 9th year of Emperor Chūai's reign (legendary year 200), Empress Jingū subdued a local queen named Taburatsu-hime (田油津媛) in Yamato county (山門郡, modern Yanagawa/Miyama area).

* Tango Province: The ''Tango no Kuni Fudoki Zanketsu'', a document purported to be a fragment of the lost ''Tango Fudoki'' (though its authenticity is debated, possibly being a later forgery), mentions a Tsuchigumo named Kuga-mimi-no-Mikasa (陸耳御笠) who ravaged the land. He was supposedly defeated by Prince Hikoimasu (日子坐王), brother of Emperor Sujin, and fled to Yosa-no-Ōeyama (與佐大山), identified with modern Ōeyama. This has led some to call Kuga-mimi the "first oni of Ōeyama."

Yōkai Tsuchigumo

From the Japanese middle ages (Kamakura/Muromachi/ Azuchi-Momoyama periods, or the late 12th to the early 17th centuries) onward, ''tsuchigumo'' began to be depicted as giant, monstrous spiders, often referred to as either ''tsuchigumo'' (土蜘蛛) or ''yamagumo'' (山蜘蛛, mountain spider). These depictions drew little direct inspiration from the historical accounts of rebellious clans, instead developing into distinct folklore figures.

The Tale of the Heike and Yorimitsu

A key text in popularizing the Tsuchigumo yōkai is ''The Tale of the Heike'' (''Heike Monogatari''). This work, passed down orally among ''biwa'' lute players, exists in numerous variants, including the expanded ''Genpei Jōsuiki''. Some versions contain an extended passage on swords known as the "Sword Scroll" (''tsurugi-no-maki''). This scroll is regarded as one of the most important sources for the legend of Minamoto no Yorimitsu (also known as Raikō) and the Tsuchigumo, influencing many later artistic representations.

The ''Tsurugi-no-maki'' relates that Yorimitsu was suffering from malaria () when a strange monk, seven shaku (over 2 meters) tall, appeared and tried to bind him with rope. Despite his illness, Yorimitsu slashed at the monk with his famous sword, . The monk fled, leaving a trail of blood. The next day, Yorimitsu, accompanied by his four chief retainers (the ), followed the blood trail to a mound behind Kitano Shrine. There they discovered a giant ''yamagumo'', four shaku (about 1.2 meters) across. They captured the spider, impaled it with an iron skewer, and exposed it by a riverbank. Yorimitsu subsequently recovered, and Hizamaru was renamed in honor of the event. Today, several historical tachi swords are claimed to be the legendary Hizamaru/Kumokiri, including ones held by Daikaku-ji Temple, Hakone Shrine, and a private collector. These swords also bear other names like 'Hoemaru' and 'Usumidori' based on associated legends.

Tsuchigumo Sōshi

The 14th-century picture scroll ''Tsuchigumo Sōshi'' (土蜘蛛草紙, "Tale of the Earth Spider") offers a different, more elaborate version of the legend. It depicts Yorimitsu and his retainer Watanabe no Tsuna visiting Rendaino, a burial ground north of Kyoto. They encounter a flying skull, follow it to a dilapidated mansion, and are assailed by various yōkai. Near dawn, a beautiful woman attempts to deceive them, but Yorimitsu strikes her with his sword. She vanishes, leaving a trail of white blood. Following the trail into the mountains, they discover a cave inhabited by a colossal ''yamagumo'', described as 20 jō (approximately 60 meters) long. After a fierce battle, they slay the spider. Cutting open its belly reveals 1,990 human skulls, and numerous small spiders emerge from its flanks, along with another 20 smaller skulls. Interestingly, the scroll's illustrations sometimes deviate from the text; while the narrative describes a giant spider as the main antagonist, some images depict Yorimitsu and Tsuna battling two large oni resembling Gozu and Mezu, perhaps representing another transformation of the Tsuchigumo.

Noh, Kabuki, and Later Influence

The legend was adapted into the 15th-century Noh play ''Tsuchigumo''. In this version, the spider spirit explicitly identifies itself, stating "I am the spirit of the Tsuchigumo who has passed many years on Mount Katsuragi" (葛城山に年を経し土蜘蛛の精魂なり). The Noh play, often categorized as a fifth-category (demon) play, solidified the image of the Tsuchigumo as a vengeful supernatural entity linked to Yorimitsu. Variations exist where Yorimitsu is incapacitated by illness, and one of his retainers hunts down the spider in his stead.

The story of Yorimitsu and the Tsuchigumo became a popular subject in Jōruri and Kabuki theatre, particularly in plays set in the "Zen-Taiheiki" world, which focused on the exploits of Yorimitsu and his Shitennō. The motif of a spider using magic influenced other tales featuring spider yōkai, such as the ''yamagumo'' in ''Zentō Yasukata Chūgiden'' (善知安方忠義伝) and Kojorōgumo (小女郎蜘蛛) in ''Shiraito Monogatari'' (白縫譚).

Associated Legends

Due to the popularity of the yōkai tales, several locations in Japan have legends connecting them to the Tsuchigumo:

* Mount Katsuragi, Nara: As mentioned, Katsuragi Hitokotonushi Shrine has a "Tsuchigumo mound" (土蜘蛛塚) associated with Emperor Jimmu's victory.
* Kyoto:
** Jōbon Rendai-ji temple in Kita Ward houses a mound dedicated to Minamoto no Yorimitsu (源頼光朝臣塚), which local legend claims was originally the Tsuchigumo's nest. A story tells that someone who tried to cut down a tree near the mound fell mysteriously ill and died.
** A mound near Ichijō-dori street in Kamigyō Ward is also said to have been a Tsuchigumo nest. A stone lantern unearthed there, dubbed the "Spider Lantern" (蜘蛛灯籠), reportedly brought misfortune to whoever possessed it. Feared as a manifestation of the Tsuchigumo's curse, it is now housed at Higashimukai Kannon-ji temple.
* Minamoto no Mitsunaka's Betrayal: One theory suggests that the persistent targeting of Yorimitsu and his retainers by yōkai like the Tsuchigumo and Shuten-dōji stems from an alleged betrayal by Yorimitsu's father, Minamoto no Mitsunaka. According to this theory, Mitsunaka initially allied with Tsuchigumo/oni forces to rebel against the Fujiwara clan but betrayed them during the Anna incident (969 AD) to save himself, thus incurring their lasting enmity upon his descendants.

See also

* Jorōgumo - Another spider yōkai in Japanese folklore.
* Ryōmen Sukuna - Another figure from Japanese chronicles described as monstrous, possibly representing a rebellious force against the Yamato court.
* List of legendary creatures from Japan

References

Citations

Works cited

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Further reading

* Aston, William George. ''Shinto: the way of the gods''. Longmans, Green, and Co. (1905)
* Brinkley, Frank and Dairoku Kikuchi. ''A history of the Japanese people from the earliest times to the end of the Meiji era''. The Encyclopædia Britannica Co. (1915)
* Horne, Charles Francis. ''The Sacred books and early literature of the East''. Parke, Austin, and Lipscomb: (1917)
* ''Monsters, Animals, and Other Worlds: A Collection of Short Medieval Japanese Tales''. Edited by Keller Kimbrough and Haruo Shirane. New York Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press, 2018. pp. 23-30. https://doi.org/10.7312/kimb18446-003 (Includes translation of Tsuchigumo Sōshi)
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* Reider, Noriko T. ''Japanese Demon Lore: Oni, From Ancient Times to the Present''. Logan, Utah: Utah State University Press, 2010. pp. 165–169 (two examples of Tsuchigumo in modern media).
* (In Spanish, discusses Yorimitsu and the Tsuchigumo)
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* Trench, K. Paul, translator. ''Nihongi: chronicles of Japan from the earliest times to A.D. 697'': Volume 1. The Society. Trübner. (1896) (Translation by W.G. Aston)

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Ancient peoples of Japan
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Kofun period
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