Trikora
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Operation Trikora () was a combined
Soviet The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
Indonesian military The Indonesian National Armed Forces (; abbreviated as TNI) are the military forces of the Republic of Indonesia. It consists of the Army (''TNI-AD''), Navy (''TNI-AL''), and Air Force (''TNI-AU''). The President of Indonesia is the Supreme C ...
operation which aimed to seize and annex the Dutch overseas territory of
New Guinea New Guinea (; Hiri Motu: ''Niu Gini''; , fossilized , also known as Papua or historically ) is the List of islands by area, world's second-largest island, with an area of . Located in Melanesia in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, the island is ...
in 1961 and 1962. After negotiations, the Netherlands signed the
New York Agreement The New York Agreement, officially the Agreement between the Republic of Indonesia and the Kingdom of the Netherlands Concerning West New Guinea, is an agreement signed by the Kingdom of the Netherlands and Indonesia regarding the administration ...
with Indonesia on 15 August 1962, relinquishing control of Western New Guinea to the
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...
.


Background

When the rest of the
Dutch East Indies The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies (; ), was a Dutch Empire, Dutch colony with territory mostly comprising the modern state of Indonesia, which Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, declared independence on 17 Au ...
became fully independent as Indonesia in December 1949, the Dutch retained sovereignty over the western part of the island of
New Guinea New Guinea (; Hiri Motu: ''Niu Gini''; , fossilized , also known as Papua or historically ) is the List of islands by area, world's second-largest island, with an area of . Located in Melanesia in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, the island is ...
during the
Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference The Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference (; Indonesian: ) was held in The Hague from 23 August to 2 November 1949, between representatives of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Republic of Indonesia and the Federal Consultative Assembly, ...
with the method of transfer to be discussed over the next 12 months. Instead, the Dutch wanted to retain Dutch New Guinea. Right-wing politicians wanted that the "Dutch flag remain planted in at least one portion of the former colony" and cited the presence of oil around Sorong. Only when it was certain that the Dutch couldn't keep the territory from Indonesia that they wanted to take steps to prepare it for independence as a separate country. The Dutch and some West Papuan leaders argued that the territory did not belong to Indonesia because the West Papuans were ethnically and geographically separated from Indonesians, had always been administered separately, and that the West Papuans did not want to be under Indonesian control.Ron Crocombe, 282 From its independence in 1949 until 1961, Indonesia attempted to gain control of Western New Guinea through the United Nations. The vote reached a majority but not the two-thirds needed for adoption. Since the
Indonesian National Revolution The Indonesian National Revolution (), also known as the Indonesian War of Independence (, ), was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between the Republic of Indonesia and the Dutch Empire and an internal social revolution during A ...
, Indonesian nationalists had regarded Western New Guinea as an intrinsic part of the Indonesian state. Though Indonesian nationalists contended that
Western New Guinea Western New Guinea, also known as Papua, Indonesian New Guinea, and Indonesian Papua, is the western half of the island of New Guinea, formerly Dutch and granted to Indonesia in 1962. Given the island is alternatively named Papua, the region ...
(Irian Barat) belonged to Indonesia and was being illegally occupied by the Dutch, Indonesia had not presented this argument to the
International Court of Justice The International Court of Justice (ICJ; , CIJ), or colloquially the World Court, is the only international court that Adjudication, adjudicates general disputes between nations, and gives advisory opinions on International law, internation ...
(ICJ). A further argument was that the
Linggadjati Agreement The Linggadjati Agreement (''Linggajati'' in modern Indonesian spelling) was a political accord concluded on 15 November 1946 by the Dutch administration and the unilaterally declared Republic of Indonesia in the village of Linggajati, Kuningan ...
stated that the Dutch were relinquishing the “whole territory of Netherlands (East) Indie" and West Papua was incorporated in Negara Indonesia Timur or NIT and NIT dissolved into
United States of Indonesia The United States of Indonesia (, ; abbreviated as RIS or RUSI, also known as Federal Republic of Indonesia) was a short-lived federal state to which the Netherlands formally transferred sovereignty of the Dutch East Indies (except Netherlands N ...
which in turn became the Republic of Indonesia, had also not been tended at the ICJ. Since 1954, Indonesia had sporadically launched military raids into Western New Guinea. Following the failure of negotiations at the
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...
, the president of Indonesia,
Sukarno Sukarno (6 June 1901 – 21 June 1970) was an Indonesian statesman, orator, revolutionary, and nationalist who was the first president of Indonesia, serving from 1945 to 1967. Sukarno was the leader of the Indonesian struggle for independenc ...
, escalated pressure on the Netherlands by nationalising Dutch-owned businesses and estates and repatriating Dutch nationals. These actions increased tensions between Indonesia and the Netherlands, and led to a sharp reduction in trade between the two countries. Following a sustained period of harassment of Dutch diplomats in Indonesia, Indonesia formally severed ties with the Netherlands in August 1960. Indonesia also increased its military pressure on Dutch New Guinea by buying weapons from the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
and the
Eastern Bloc The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc (Combloc), the Socialist Bloc, the Workers Bloc, and the Soviet Bloc, was an unofficial coalition of communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America that were a ...
. Over the following years, the Sukarno government became dependent on Soviet military support.J.D. Legge, 402 On 26 September 1961, the Netherlands proposed United Nations administration for which the Netherlands would maintain $30 million annual funding, and proposed a United Nations commission to assess conditions, the public's wishes, and possibility of a United Nations plebiscite.UN General Assembly plenary meeting 1016 On 19 December 1961, Sukarno decreed the establishment of the People's Triple Command or ''Tri Komando Rakyat'' (Trikora) in order to annex what Indonesia called
West Irian Western New Guinea, also known as Papua, Indonesian New Guinea, and Indonesian Papua, is the western half of the island of New Guinea, formerly Dutch colonial empire, Dutch and granted to Indonesia in 1962. Given the island is alternatively n ...
by 1 January 1963. Trikora's operational command was to be called the Mandala Command for the Liberation of West Irian (''Komando Mandala Pembebasan Irian Barat'') with Major-General
Suharto Suharto (8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesian Officer (armed forces), military officer and politician, and dictator, who was the second and longest serving president of Indonesia, serving from 1967 to 1998. His 32 years rule, cha ...
(the future President of Indonesia) serving as its commander. In preparation for the planned invasion, the Mandala command began making land, air, and sea incursions into West Irian.Bilveer Singh, ''West Irian and the Suharto Presidency'', p.86 As a result, Indonesia began a policy of confronting the Dutch over control of Western New Guinea. Sukarno also embarked on a policy of "progressive mobilization" to prepare the nation to carry out his commands. While the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia sided with the Netherlands' claims to Western New Guinea and were opposed to Indonesian expansionism, they were unwilling to commit military support to the Dutch. The Netherlands was unable to find sufficient international support for its New Guinea policy. By contrast, Sukarno was able to muster the support of the Soviet Union and its
Warsaw Pact The Warsaw Pact (WP), formally the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Assistance (TFCMA), was a Collective security#Collective defense, collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Polish People's Republic, Poland, between the Sovi ...
allies, and the
Non-Aligned Movement The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a forum of 121 countries that Non-belligerent, are not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. It was founded with the view to advancing interests of developing countries in the context of Cold W ...
. In response to Indonesian claims, the Netherlands sped up the process of implementing West Papuan self-rule from 1959 onward. These measures included the establishment of a legislative New Guinea Council in 1960, establishing hospitals, the completion of a shipyard in
Manokwari Manokwari is a coastal town and the capital city, capital of the Provinces of Indonesia, Indonesian province of West Papua (province), West Papua. It is one of only seven provincial capitals of Indonesia without a city status in Indonesia, city ...
, development of agricultural research sites and plantations; and the creation of the
Papuan Volunteer Corps The Papuan Volunteer Corps (PVK, ) was a corps consisting entirely of Papuans, formed on February 21, 1961. It was established to contribute to the defense of Dutch New Guinea against the infiltration of the Indonesian Army during the West New Gu ...
to defend the territory.J.D. Legge, 403


Trikora

On 19 December 1961, President Sukarno made a speech in
Yogyakarta Yogyakarta is the capital city of the Special Region of Yogyakarta in Indonesia, in the south-central part of the island of Java. As the only Indonesian royal city still ruled by Hamengkubuwono, a monarchy, Yogyakarta is regarded as an importan ...
regarding the liberation of Papua, revolving around "The three principles of Trikora." The three principles of Trikora were: # Prevent The
Netherlands , Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...
from forming a puppet state in West Papua. # To fly the Indonesian bicolour (the "red and white") in West Papua. # Prepare for mass mobilisation that cover all Indonesians to free West Papua from Dutch imperialism


Preparation


Military

Indonesia began seeking weapons from abroad in response to the conflict with the Netherlands. Having failed to secure anything from the United States (Dutch membership in
NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO ; , OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental organization, intergovernmental Transnationalism, transnational military alliance of 32 Member states of NATO, member s ...
was the possible reason), General
Nasution Abdul Haris Nasution (; 3 December 1918 – 6 September 2000) was a high-ranking Indonesian general and politician. He served in the military during the Indonesian National Revolution and remained in the military during the subsequent turmoil of ...
went to
Moscow Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...
in December 1960 to negotiate what eventually turned out to be a US$2.5 billion arms package with the Soviet government. The subsequent deliveries that arose from this deal led the Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) to boast that Indonesia had the strongest air force in the southern hemisphere. The
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
did not support the surrender of West Papua to Indonesia, since the Bureau of European Affairs considered it an act of trading one occupying power for another. However, in April 1961,
Robert Komer Robert William "Blowtorch Bob" Komer (February 23, 1922 – April 9, 2000) was an American national security adviser known for managing Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development Support during the Vietnam War. Early life and education Born ...
and
McGeorge Bundy McGeorge "Mac" Bundy (March 30, 1919 – September 16, 1996) was an American academic who served as the U.S. National Security Advisor to Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson from 1961 through 1966. He was president of the Ford Fou ...
began to prepare plans for the United Nations to give the impression that surrender to Indonesia was legal. Although reluctantly, President
John F. Kennedy John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), also known as JFK, was the 35th president of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. He was the first Roman Catholic and youngest person elected p ...
finally supported these plans, fearing that, without U.S support, the Indonesians would become further entrenched into the Soviet-bloc. Indonesia bought various kinds of military equipment, including 41 Mi-4 and nine
Mi-6 The Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), commonly known as MI6 ( Military Intelligence, Section 6), is the foreign intelligence service of the United Kingdom, tasked mainly with the covert overseas collection and analysis of human intelligence ...
helicopters, 30
MiG-15 The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 (; USAF/DoD designation: Type 14; NATO reporting name: Fagot) is a jet fighter aircraft developed by Mikoyan-Gurevich for the Soviet Union. The MiG-15 was one of the first successful jet fighters to incorporate s ...
, 49
MiG-17 The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 (; NATO reporting name: Fresco) is a high-subsonic fighter aircraft produced in the Soviet Union from 1952 and was operated by air forces internationally. The MiG-17 was license-built in China as the Shenyang J-5 an ...
, ten
MiG-19 The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19 (; NATO reporting name: Farmer) is a Soviet second generation, single-seat, twinjet fighter aircraft. It was the first Soviet production aircraft capable of supersonic speeds in level flight. A comparable U.S. " Cen ...
and 20
MiG-21 The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 (; NATO reporting name: Fishbed) is a supersonic jet aircraft, jet fighter aircraft, fighter and interceptor aircraft, designed by the Mikoyan, Mikoyan-Gurevich OKB, Design Bureau in the Soviet Union. Its nicknames in ...
fighter jets, 12
Whiskey Whisky or whiskey is a type of liquor made from Fermentation in food processing, fermented grain mashing, mash. Various grains (which may be Malting, malted) are used for different varieties, including barley, Maize, corn, rye, and wheat. Whisky ...
-class submarines, 12 Komar-class missile boats, and one ex-Soviet Navy
Sverdlov-class cruiser The ''Sverdlov''-class cruisers, Soviet designation Project 68bis, were the last conventional gun cruisers built for the Soviet Navy. They were built in the 1950s and were based on Soviet, German, and Italian designs and concepts developed befor ...
which was renamed the . Of the types of bombers, there were 22
Ilyushin Il-28 The Ilyushin Il-28 (; NATO reporting name: Beagle) is a jet bomber of the immediate postwar period that was originally manufactured for the Soviet Air Forces. It was the Soviet Union's first such aircraft to enter large-scale production. It was ...
light bombers, 14
Tu-16 The Tupolev Tu-16 (USAF/DOD reporting name Type 39; NATO reporting name: Badger) is a twin-engined jet strategic heavy bomber used by the Soviet Union. It has been flown for almost 70 years. While many aircraft in Soviet service were retired af ...
long-range medium bombers, and 12 maritime versions of Tu-16 aircraft equipped to launch the
AS-1 Kennel The Raduga KS-1 Comet ( (Крылатый Снаряд: winged projectile), NATO reporting name: AS-1 Kennel) was a Soviet short range air-to-surface missile, primarily developed for anti-ship missions. It was carried on two aircraft, the Tupole ...
anti-ship missile An anti-ship missile (AShM or ASM) is a guided missile that is designed for use against ships and large boats. Most anti-ship missiles are of the sea-skimming variety, and many use a combination of inertial guidance and active radar homing. ...
s. Of the types of transport aircraft, there were 26 IL-14 and
Avia AVIA () is a Soviet/Russian experimental pop band formed in Leningrad in 1986. AVIA released four studio albums and led the first wave of the Soviet bands which made their breakthrough in the West in the late 1980s. Band history AVIA was formed ...
-14 light transport aircraft, six
Antonov An-12 The Antonov An-12 ( Russian: Антонов Ан-12; NATO reporting name: Cub) is a four-engined turboprop transport aircraft designed in the Soviet Union. It is the military version of the Antonov An-10 and has many variants. For more than thr ...
heavy transports, and ten
C-130 Hercules The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is an American four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft designed and built by Lockheed Corporation, Lockheed (now Lockheed Martin). Capable of using unprepared runways for takeoffs and landings, the C-130 w ...
tactical transport aircraft.


Airbases

To achieve air superiority, the first preparations undertaken by the
Indonesian Air Force The Indonesian Air Force (, sometimes shortened as IDAF / IdAF) is the Air force, aerial branch of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. The Indonesian Air Force is headquartered in Jakarta, Indonesia, and is headed by the Chief of Staff of th ...
(AURI) were to repair war-damaged airbases, which would be used for infiltration operations and normal operations on the West Irian mainland. Air bases and
landing strips In aviation, a runway is an elongated, rectangular surface designed for the landing and takeoff of an aircraft. Runways may be a human-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface (grass, dirt, gravel, ic ...
which were common along the borders of
Maluku Maluku may refer to: Places * Maluku Islands, an archipelago that is part of Indonesia ** List of the Maluku Islands * Maluku (province), a province of Indonesia comprising the central and southern parts of the archipelago * North Maluku, a provin ...
and West Irian, were relics of
imperial Japanese The Empire of Japan, also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was the Japanese nation state that existed from the Meiji Restoration on January 3, 1868, until the Constitution of Japan took effect on May 3, 1947. From 1910 to 19 ...
presence. Such airbases and landing strips were last used in 1945, and had since fallen into disrepair.


Soviet involvement

Soviet support of Indonesia played a crucial role in ending the conflict over New Guinea. Owing to the support of Soviet submarines and bombers, Indonesian military forces could confidently launch attacks on Dutch troops. In response to the Soviet presence, the United States put pressure on the Netherlands to relinquish control of West Papua. At the height of the Cold War, it was strategically critical that Indonesia remain outside the Soviet sphere of influence, which made the U.S willing to take action to ensure a neutral or friendly relationship with Indonesia. By enforcing the transfer of New Guinea, the US could keep the Sukarno regime friendly. As the US relinquished support, the Dutch eventually gave way to US pressure and the threat of an extended conflict in New Guinea. The Soviet support was secret – the "volunteers" wore Indonesian uniforms. However, according to Khrushchev's memoirs, Indonesian Foreign Minister Soebandrio let the Soviet willingness to actively provide military support leak to
Howard P. Jones Howard Palfrey Jones (January 2, 1899 – September 1973) was a United States diplomat whose career was focused on Southeast and East Asia. Between March 1958 and April 1965, Jones served as the United States Ambassador to Indonesia during the last ...
, the US ambassador in Jakarta. Admiral Sudomo revealed in a newspaper article in 2005 that six Soviet submarines supported the amphibious operations while stationed in Bitang, East Sulawesi, tasked to attack the Dutch fleet in Manokwari. Submarine commander Rudolf Ryzhikov recalled in a Russian article he received orders on 29 July from Admiral
Sergey Gorshkov Sergey Georgyevich Gorshkov (; 26 February 1910 – 13 May 1988) was an admiral of the fleet of the Soviet Union. Twice awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union, he oversaw the expansion of the Soviet Navy into a global force during the Cold ...
to patrol a combat zone west of New Guinea and sink any shipping after midnight on 5 August. Naval officer and Historian Matthijs Ooms has shown in his masterpaper that the Dutch naval intelligence service, MARID (Marine Inlichtingendienst), received information in the summer of 1962 that Soviet crews were manning Indonesian submarines and Tupolev bombers. In his memoirs, Khrushchev freely admitted that during the West New Guinea crisis Soviet personnel had been commanding Indonesian submarines and piloting Tu-16s.


Diplomacy

In the buildup to the conflict, Indonesia approached key regional players including
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
,
Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
,
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...
,
New Zealand New Zealand () is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and List of islands of New Zealand, over 600 smaller islands. It is the List of isla ...
,
Thailand Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...
,
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
,
West-Germany West Germany was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) from its formation on 23 May 1949 until German reunification, its reunification with East Germany on 3 October 1990. It is sometimes known as the Bonn Republi ...
, and
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
to ensure that they would not support the Netherlands in a potential Dutch-Indonesian conflict. In the United Nations General Assembly in 1961, the UN Secretary General
U Thant Thant ( ; 22 January 1909 – 25 November 1974), known honorifically as U Thant (), was a Burmese diplomat and the third secretary-general of the United Nations from 1961 to 1971, the first non-Scandinavian as well as Asian to hold the positio ...
asked
Ellsworth Bunker Ellsworth F. Bunker (May 11, 1894 – September 27, 1984) was an American businessman and diplomat who served as ambassador to Argentina, Italy, India, Nepal and South Vietnam. He is perhaps best known for being a hawk on the war in Vietnam and S ...
, a US diplomat, to submit proposals addressing the problem of the status of West Irian. Bunker proposed that the Netherlands cede West Irian to Indonesia through the United Nations within a period of 2 years.


Economy

On 27 December 1958, President Sukarno issued Law No. 86 of 1958 concerning the nationalization of all Dutch companies in Indonesia. Nationalized companies included: # Plantation companies # Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappij # Electricity companies # Petroleum companies # Hospital (CBZ) becomes RSCM While other policies were implemented, including: # Moving the Indonesian
tobacco Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus '' Nicotiana'' of the family Solanaceae, and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the ...
auction market to
Bremen Bremen (Low German also: ''Breem'' or ''Bräm''), officially the City Municipality of Bremen (, ), is the capital of the States of Germany, German state of the Bremen (state), Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (), a two-city-state consisting of the c ...
,
West Germany West Germany was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) from its formation on 23 May 1949 until German reunification, its reunification with East Germany on 3 October 1990. It is sometimes known as the Bonn Republi ...
# Dutch workers strike in Indonesia # Prohibiting
KLM KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, or simply KLM (an abbreviation for their official name Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij N.V. , ),
(a Dutch airline) from entering Indonesian airspace # Prohibiting the screening of Dutch films


General strategy

In accordance with the development of the Trikora situation, instructions were given by the Commander in Chief of the Highest Commodity of Liberation of West Irian No. 1 to Major General
Suharto Suharto (8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesian Officer (armed forces), military officer and politician, and dictator, who was the second and longest serving president of Indonesia, serving from 1967 to 1998. His 32 years rule, cha ...
, Commanding General of the Mandala Command, which were the following: * Plan, prepare, and conduct military operations with the aim of unification of West Papua as part of the territory of Indonesia. * Developing the situation in West Papua in accordance with the struggle in the field of diplomacy and in the shortest possible time in this region creating de facto regions of Indonesian control. Strategies developed by the CGMC to carry out these instructions included the following: * Infiltration (until the end 1962), namely by deploying infantry units around certain targets to create a strong de facto free area that is resistant to destruction by the enemy and to develop territorial control by unifying the local populace. * Exploitation (early 1963), namely carrying out an open attack on enemy forces and occupying all important enemy defense posts. * Consolidation (early 1964), namely by demonstrating the power and absolute sovereignty of the Republic of Indonesia throughout West Papua


Indonesian military operations

In 1962, Indonesian incursions into the territory in the form of paratroop drops and the naval landings of guerrillas were used to step up Indonesian Foreign Minister
Subandrio Subandrio (15 September 1914 – 3 July 2004) was an Indonesian politician Foreign Minister and First Deputy Prime Minister of Indonesia under President Sukarno. Removed from office following the failed 1965 coup, he spent 29 years in prison. ...
's diplomatic confrontation with the Dutch. Operation Trikora was to unfold in three phases: infiltration, exploitation and consolidation, all under cover of the Indonesian Air Force. The plan called first for the insertion of small bands of Indonesian troops by sea and by airdrop, who would then draw Dutch forces away from areas where the exploitation phase would stage full-scale amphibious landings and paratroop operations to seize key locations. The consolidation phase would then expand Indonesian control over the whole of Western New Guinea. On 15 January 1962, the infiltration phase of Operation Trikora began when four
Indonesian Navy The Indonesian Navy (, TNI-AL) is the Navy, naval branch of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. It was founded on 10 September 1945 and has a role to patrol Indonesia's lengthy coastline, to enforce and patrol the territorial waters and Exclus ...
motor torpedo boats attempted to land a unit of 150 marines on the south coast of New Guinea near Vlakke Hoek. The force was detected by a Dutch Lockheed P2V-7B Neptune aircraft and the Indonesian boats were intercepted by three Dutch destroyers. During the subsequent
Battle of Arafura Sea The Battle of Arafura Sea (), also known as the Battle of Vlakke Hoek (), was a naval battle in the Vlakke Hoek Bay (Etna Bay) of the Arafura Sea in Western New Guinea on 15 January 1962, between Indonesia and the Netherlands. Background The bat ...
, one Indonesian boat was sunk and two others were badly damaged and forced to retreat. Thus, this planned Indonesian amphibious landing ended disastrously with many crew members and marines being killed, among them Commodore
Yos Sudarso Commodore Yosaphat "Yos" Sudarso (24 November 1925 – 15 January 1962) was an Indonesian naval officer killed at the Battle of Arafura Sea. At the time of his death, Yos Sudarso was deputy chief of staff of the Indonesian Navy and in charge ...
, the Deputy Chief of the Indonesian Navy Staff. Some 55 survivors were captured. Over the next eight months, the Indonesian forces managed to insert 562 troops by sea and 1,154 by air drops. The inserted Indonesian troops conducted guerrilla operations throughout Western New Guinea from April 1962 onwards, but they were largely militarily ineffective. At least 94 Indonesian soldiers were killed and 73 were wounded during the hostilities. By contrast, the Dutch suffered only minimal casualties. Indonesian military activity continued to increase in the area through mid-1962 in preparation for the second phase of the operation. The Indonesian Air Force began to fly missions in the area from bases on surrounding islands, with Soviet-supplied Tupolev Tu-16 bombers armed with
KS-1 Komet The Raduga KS-1 Comet ( (Крылатый Снаряд: winged projectile), NATO reporting name: AS-1 Kennel) was a Soviet short range air-to-surface missile, primarily developed for anti-ship missions. It was carried on two aircraft, the Tupole ...
anti-ship missiles deployed in anticipation of an attack against the . By the summer of 1962, the Indonesian military had begun planning a large-scale amphibious and air assault against
Biak Biak is the main island of Biak Archipelago located in Cenderawasih Bay near the northern coast of Papua (province), Papua, an Indonesian province, and is just northwest of New Guinea. Biak has many atolls, reefs, and corals. The largest popula ...
, the Netherlands' main power base in West Irian. This operation would have been known as Operation Jayawijaya ("Victory over Imperialism") and would have included a substantial task force of 60 ships including several which had been supplied by Sukarno's Soviet and Eastern Bloc allies. On 13 and 14 August 1962, air drops of Indonesian troops were staged from Sorong in the northwest to Merauke in the southeast as a diversion for an amphibious assault against the Dutch military base at Biak by a force of 7,000 Army ( RPKAD) and Air Force ( PASGAT) paratroopers, 4,500 marines and 13,000 army servicemen, from various military districts ( KODAMs). However, the Dutch Navy's Marid 6 Netherlands New Guinea (Marid 6 NNG)
signals intelligence Signals intelligence (SIGINT) is the act and field of intelligence-gathering by interception of ''signals'', whether communications between people (communications intelligence—abbreviated to COMINT) or from electronic signals not directly u ...
section and Neptune aircraft detected the invasion force and alerted their command. According to Wies Platje, the
Royal Netherlands Navy The Royal Netherlands Navy (, ) is the Navy, maritime service branch of the Netherlands Armed Forces. It traces its history to 8 January 1488, making it the List of navies, third-oldest navy in the world. During the 17th and early 18th centurie ...
was responsible for the defence of Western New Guinea. In 1962, the Dutch naval presence in New Guinea consisted of five anti-submarine destroyers, two frigates, three submarines, one survey vessel, one supply ship and two oil tankers. Dutch air power in Western New Guinea consisted of 11 Lockheed P2V-7B Neptune aircraft from the Dutch Navy plus 24
Hawker Hunter The Hawker Hunter is a transonic British jet propulsion, jet-powered fighter aircraft that was developed by Hawker Aircraft for the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the late 1940s and early 1950s. It was designed to take advantage of the newly dev ...
jet fighters from the
Royal Netherlands Air Force The Royal Netherlands Air Force (RNLAF; , "Royal Air Force") is the military aviation branch of the Netherlands Armed Forces. It was created in 1953 to succeed its predecessor, the ''Luchtvaartafdeling'' () of the Dutch Army, which was founded ...
. In addition, Dutch ground forces consisted of several anti-aircraft artillery units, five
Netherlands Marine Corps The Royal Netherlands Marine Corps () is the elite naval infantry corps of the Royal Netherlands Navy, one of the four Netherlands Armed Forces, Armed Forces of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The marines trace their origins to the establishme ...
companies and three
Royal Netherlands Army The Royal Netherlands Army (, KL) is the Ground warfare, land branch of the Netherlands Armed Forces. Though the Royal Netherlands Army was raised on 9 January 1814, its origins date back to 1572, when the was raised making the Dutch standing a ...
infantry battalions. As part of the planned defence, the Dutch had considered using Marid 6 NNG to disrupt the Indonesian military's communication systems.


Infiltration from Post 101 Hanggodo

On 23 March 1962, infiltration began using 3 boats, one of them motorised, and carry PG 600. PG 600 was led by Maksum with Ki R/XV under the leadership of Lt. Nussy. They travelled from Ujir and Karwai to S. Jera. a unit consisted of 24 members under the leadership of Octavianus Marani was able land, although the parent force was forced to return because was sighted by Neptune plane. They are able to return except 7 members on board the vessel "Ho Sing Sang" which was shot by Dutch forces and presumed lost between Etna Bay and Watu Belah Islands.


Infiltration from Post 102 Kapi Jembawan

Units sent from this post, were tasked to collect intelligence. There were 5 failed attempts although on 13 May 1962 a unit consisted of 20 people from Brimob was able to arrive although promptly captured by Dutch Navy before they were able to land. On 7 August 1962 63 people consisted of 53 from Brimob and 10 volunteers managed to land in Rumbati near Patipi, Fakfak.


Infiltration from Post 103 Hanilo

On 18 March 1962 at 15.15 from this post, on Gebe island, PG 300 consisted of 2 platoons and Command Company 191261, under the leadership of Lt. Nana attempt an infiltration to Waigeo. They were sighted by Dutch reconnaissance plane, and therefore was forced to land on
Gag island Gag Island is one of the Raja Ampat Islands in the Indonesian province of Southwest Papua. It is situated some 150 kilometres west of Sorong, the provincial capital. The island's population is approximately 450 living at Gambier Bay. This comm ...
, west of Waigeo. PG 300 was isolated and assaulted by Dutch forces. On 25 March 1962, Indonesian Air force B-25 Mitchells (tail number M-434) engaged a Dutch Navy ship off Gag Island, setting the ship on fire. On 26 March 1962, Dutch forces landed in Gag island. The fighting from both forces lasted for a month. On 15 April 1962, Dutch forces began another sweeping operation on the island, however some PG 300 forces was able to move to the interior and to other coastal areas. Around 29 Gag islanders joined with PG 300 forces. On 20 April 1962, 2 platoons 191260 PG 300 under the command of Sergeant Major Boy Thomas travelled from Yu island to Tanjung Dalpele on Waigeo. They were sighted by Dutch reconnaissance plane, and therefore took refuge in Bala-Bala island for 2 hours before landed safely in Tanjung Dalpele. On 15 July 1962, PG 500 under the command of Jonkey Robert Komontoy, consisted of 87 people travelled from Gebe island to Waigeo. In Waigeo they met up with forces under Herlina Kasim which was a false flag unit. These 2 forces joined and enter Arugu Bay, northwest of Sorong. PG 500 enter Sausapor on 17 July 1962. Previous successful infiltration by PG 400 consisted of 200 people. This group movement was covered by Herlina forces on 12 August 1962. In Waigeo, Indonesian soldiers did not encounter Dutch forces as they rarely visited the island.


Infiltration from Post Wahai

After the failed infiltration from Post 101, on 9 August 1962, Raider Corps Kodam XV under the leadership of Lt. Nussy landed in Misool. Another forces from Wahai on 11 August 1962 consisted of 46 members was forced to return after meeting a Dutch Navy destroyer. However, after escorts from 5 Motorised Torpedo Boats (MTB), they were able to land on 12 August 1962. Those 5 MTB were engaged with Dutch forces consisted of 1 frigate, 1 destroyer, 1 submarine, and 1 Neptune, however managed to return safely.


Operation Banteng

This operation was done by of paratroopers from PGT and RPKAD with the target of Kaimana and Fakfak. Based on those 2 objectives this operation consisted of 2 operation. Operasi Banteng Putih, under the leadership of Air Major Nayoan, with the target of Fakfak. This unit consisted of 40 members, led by Lettu Agus Hernoto. The drop was on 26 April 1962, at 04.00, using 3
Douglas C-47 Skytrain The Douglas C-47 Skytrain or Dakota ( RAF designation) is a military transport aircraft developed from the civilian Douglas DC-3 airliner. It was used extensively by the Allies during World War II. During the war the C-47 was used for tro ...
planes. Operasi Banteng Merah, under the leadership of Air Captain Santoso, with the target of Kaimana. This unit consisted of 39 members, led by Lettu Heru Sinodo. The drop was on 26 May 1962, at 05.00, using 3 C-47 planes.


Operation Garuda

Two battalions of Raiders Yon 454/Diponegoro and PGT members joined for this operation. This force was split into 2: Garuda Merah, consisted of 140 members led by Captain Kartawi with the target Fakfak. The first drop was on 15 May 1962, consisting of 40 people. The second drop was on 16 May 1962, consisting of 38 people. Garuda Putih, consisted of 122 members led by Lettu Idris with the target Kaimana. The first drop was on 15 May 1962, consisting of 27 people. On this drop a C-47 plane was shot down on the way home. As a result, on second drop, this operation used the larger Hercules plane. On 19 May 1962 at 04.00 the second drop consisted of 79 people. On 26 May 1962, the third drop consisted of 68 people.


Operation Serigala

The units from this operation consisted from members of PGT with the target of Sorong regions and the surrounding. This operation is split into 2 steps. On 17 May 1962, with a C-47 plane, a drop was performed on Teminabuan consisted of 39 people under the leadership of Air Lt. Lambertus Manuhua. They landed in Dutch military barracks, the fighting began immediately for several days before Indonesian forces managed to take over on 21 May 1962, and fly the Indonesian flag on the compound. On 19 May 1962, with a Hercules plane, a drop was performed on Sansapor with forces consisted of 81 people under the leadership of second Lt. Suhadi. They landed on Dutch military barracks, the fighting ended quickly, as Dutch forces suffered a loss of morale.


Operation Naga

A successful paratrooper operation occurred on 24 June 1962, with the target Merauke using 3 Hercules planes. This operation consisted of 55 members of special forces, and 160 members of Battalion 530/Brawijaya under the command of Major
Leonardus Benjamin Moerdani General officer, General (Ret.) Leonardus Benjamin Moerdani (also publicly known as L. B. Moerdani or Benny Moerdani and in foreign media as Murdani; 2 October 1932 – 29 August 2004) was the Indonesian National Armed Forces, ABRI Commander from ...
. A moderately successful guerrilla operation by these forces, forced the Dutch to send reinforcements to bolster Merauke forces from two corps to two battalions.


Operation Badar Lumut and Badar Besi

Operation Badar Lumut was trained in Tual (Post 101) with forces from Battalion 521/Brawijaya. They were planned to land on Kaimana, however, the operation was not started because of higher Dutch patrol intensity on the coast. Operation Badar Besi was planned in conjunction based in Post 103 with forces from Battalion 515/Brawijaya. Although same with the previous operation was not started yet.


Operation Lumba-Lumba

This infiltration operation was planned on using 3 submarines to land 45 servicemen under the leadership of First Lt. Dolf Latumahina on regions surrounding Jayapura. In this operation, one submarine managed to land forces in Tanah Merah. The other two submarines did not manage to land forces after the operation was paused, after cessation of hostilities. All submarines managed to land safely back to base. The successful infiltrators managed to made contact with Marthen Indey, and Elly Uyo.


Operation Lumbung

This operation was commenced on 30 June 1962 intended to supply infiltration forces that had successfully landed (Operation Naga) in
Merauke Merauke is a large town (''kelurahan'') and an administrative district (''distrik'') in Merauke Regency of South Papua Province, Indonesia. It is also the administrative centre of Merauke Regency, and is considered to be the easternmost city in I ...
, New Guinea, using a Hercules plane.


Operation Jatayu

This operation consisted of three operations, Operation Elang landed 132 airborne forces consisting of PGT in Klamono-Sorong, Operation Gagak landed 141 airborne forces from Yon-454 in Kaimana, and Operation Alap-alap landed 132 PGT forces in Merauke from Bandung.


Aftermath

On 15 August 1962, the Netherlands recognized Indonesia's resolve to take Western New Guinea. Since it was unwilling to be drawn into a protracted conflict on the other side of the world, the Dutch government signed the
New York Agreement The New York Agreement, officially the Agreement between the Republic of Indonesia and the Kingdom of the Netherlands Concerning West New Guinea, is an agreement signed by the Kingdom of the Netherlands and Indonesia regarding the administration ...
, which handed the colony to an interim United Nations administration. Consequently, Operation Jayawijaya was called off and Western New Guinea was officially acquired by Indonesia in 1963. The Dutch decision to hand over Western New Guinea to Indonesia had been influenced by its main ally, the United States. While the Netherlands was a member of the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO ; , OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental transnational military alliance of 32 member states—30 European and 2 North American. Established in the aftermat ...
(NATO) and thus an ally of the US, the
Kennedy administration John F. Kennedy's tenure as the List of presidents of the United States, 35th president of the United States began with Inauguration of John F. Kennedy, his inauguration on January 20, 1961, and ended with Assassination of John F. Kennedy, his ...
was unwilling to antagonize Indonesia since it was trying to court President Sukarno away from the Soviet orbit. The Indonesian military's incursions into West Irian, plus the substantial Soviet military assistance to the Indonesian military, had convinced the United States government to pressure the Dutch to seek a peaceful solution to the conflict.Soedjati Djiwandono, ''Konfrontasi Revisited'', p. 135. The New York Agreement was the result of negotiations led by the US diplomat Ellsworth Bunker. As a face-saving measure for the Dutch, Bunker arranged for a Dutch-Indonesian ceasefire which would be followed by the handover of Western New Guinea on 1 October 1962 to a temporary
United Nations Temporary Executive Authority The United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) was established on 1 October 1962 in accord with Article two of the New York Agreement to administer the former Dutch colony of West New Guinea until it was handed over to Indonesia ...
(UNTEA). On 1 May 1963, Indonesia formally annexed Western New Guinea. As part of the New York Agreement, it was stipulated that a popular plebiscite, called the
Act of Free Choice The Act of Free Choice () was a controversial plebiscite held between 14 July and 2 August 1969 in which 1,025 people selected by the Indonesian military in Western New Guinea voted unanimously in favor of Indonesian control. The event was men ...
, would be held in 1969 to determine whether the West Papuans would choose to remain in Indonesia or seek self-determination. However, US efforts to win over Sukarno proved futile and Indonesia turned its attention to the former British colony of Malaysia, resulting in the Indonesian-Malaysian Confrontation. Ultimately, President Sukarno was overthrown during the Indonesian coup d'état in 1965 and was replaced by the pro-Western Suharto. The US mining company
Freeport-McMoRan Freeport-McMoRan Inc., often called Freeport, is an American mining company based in the Freeport-McMoRan Center, in Phoenix, Arizona. The company is the world's largest producer of molybdenum, a major copper producer and operates the world's la ...
began exploiting Western New Guinea's copper and gold deposits. After the Act of Free Choice plebiscite in 1969, West Irian was formally integrated into the Republic of Indonesia. While several international observers including journalists and diplomats criticized the referendum as being rigged, the United States and Australia supported Indonesia's efforts to secure acceptance in the United Nations for the pro-integration vote. In all, 84 member states voted in favor for the United Nations to accept the result, with 30 others abstaining. Due to the Netherlands' efforts to promote a West Papuan national identity, a significant number of West Papuans refused to accept the territory's integration into Indonesia. These formed the separatist Organisasi Papua Merdeka (
Free Papua Movement The Free Papua Movement or Free Papua Organization (, OPM) is a name given to a separatist movement that aims to separate West Papua from Indonesia and establish an independent state in the region. The territory is currently divided into six ...
) and have waged an
insurgency An insurgency is a violent, armed rebellion by small, lightly armed bands who practice guerrilla warfare against a larger authority. The key descriptive feature of insurgency is its asymmetric warfare, asymmetric nature: small irregular forces ...
against the Indonesian authorities, which continues to this day.


Legacy

Many monuments and places are dedicated to the Trikora command, and subsequently the operation itself. Numerous monuments were built, notably the two in
Jakarta Jakarta (; , Betawi language, Betawi: ''Jakartè''), officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta (; ''DKI Jakarta'') and formerly known as Batavia, Dutch East Indies, Batavia until 1949, is the capital and largest city of Indonesia and ...
(
West Irian Liberation Monument West Irian Liberation Monument () is a postwar modernist monument located in Jakarta, Indonesia. It is located in the center of Lapangan Banteng (formerly Waterloo Square) in Sawah Besar, Central Jakarta. Sukarno, then President of Indonesia, comm ...
in
Central Jakarta Central Jakarta (, ), abbreviated as Jakpus, is one of the five Cities of Indonesia, administrative cities () and ''de facto'' Capital City of the Jakarta, Special Capital Region of Jakarta. It had 902,973 inhabitants according to the 2010 census ...
and Trikora Monument inside TNI headquarters in
East Jakarta East Jakarta (; ), abbreviated as Jaktim, is the largest of the five administrative cities (''kota administrasi'') which form the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, Indonesia, with a land area of 188.03 km2 (72.6 sq.miles). It had a population ...
), Mandala Command for West Irian Liberation Monument in
Makassar Makassar ( ), formerly Ujung Pandang ( ), is the capital of the Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province of South Sulawesi. It is the largest city in the region of Eastern Indonesia and the country's fifth-largest urban center after Jakarta, ...
,
South Sulawesi South Sulawesi () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province in the South Peninsula, Sulawesi, southern peninsula of Sulawesi, Indonesia. The Selayar Islands archipelago to the south of Sulawesi is also part of the province. The capital and largest ci ...
, and Jayawijaya Monument in
Banggai Islands Regency The Banggai Archipelago () is a group of islands located at the far eastern end of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. It makes up a regency (''kabupaten'') of Central Sulawesi Province of Indonesia, created on 4 October 1999 by splitting the existing Ba ...
,
Central Sulawesi Central Sulawesi (Indonesian language, Indonesian: ''Sulawesi Tengah'') is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located at the centre of the island of Sulawesi. The administrative capital and largest city is located in Palu. The provin ...
, as well as Trikora monuments in
Bitung Bitung, officially the City of Bitung (), is a coastal city at the north-eastern edge of the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia. Bitung is located in the province of North Sulawesi (), and faces Lembeh Island (which forms two districts of the city) ...
,
North Sulawesi North Sulawesi () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is mainly located on the Minahasa Peninsula of the island of Sulawesi, south of the Philippines and southeast of Sabah, Malaysia, but also includes various small archipel ...
, Morotai Regency,
North Maluku North Maluku (; ) is a province of Indonesia. It covers the northern part of the Maluku Islands, bordering the Pacific Ocean to the north, the Halmahera Sea to the east, the Molucca Sea to the west, and the Seram Sea to the south. It shares marit ...
, and Ambon,
Maluku Maluku may refer to: Places * Maluku Islands, an archipelago that is part of Indonesia ** List of the Maluku Islands * Maluku (province), a province of Indonesia comprising the central and southern parts of the archipelago * North Maluku, a provin ...
. Monuments alco commemorate paratroopers involved in Operation Trikora, such as a statue in
Teminabuan Teminabuan is an administrative district (''distrik'') in South Sorong Regency, in Southwest Papua, Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian an ...
,
South Sorong Regency South Sorong Regency () is a regency of Southwest Papua province of Indonesia. It has an area of 6,570.23 km2, and had a population of 37,900 at the 2010 CensusBiro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2011. and 52,469 at the 2020 Census;Badan Pusat Sta ...
and
Fakfak Regency Fakfak Regency - formerly spelt "Fak-Fak" - is a Regencies of Indonesia, regency of West Papua (province), West Papua province of Indonesia. It covers an area of 14,320 km2, and had a population of 66,828 at the 2010 CensusBiro Pusat Statisti ...
, West Papua as well as statue of L.B. Moerdani as a paratrooper in
Merauke Regency Merauke Regency is a Regencies of Indonesia, regency in the far south of the Indonesian province of South Papua. It covers an area of 45,013.35 km2, and had a population of 195,716 at the 2010 CensusBiro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2011. and 2 ...
,
South Papua South Papua, officially the South Papua Province (), is an Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province located in the southern portion of Western New Guinea, Papua, following the borders of the Papuan customary region of Anim Ha. Formally establ ...
. A short main street located north of Northern
Alun-alun An ''alun-alun'' (Javanese language, Javanese, correctly hyphenated but occurs occasionally without hyphen; also found as ''aloen-aloen'', ''aloon-aloon'', ''aloun-aloun'', and erroneously ''alon-alon'') is a large, central, open lawn Town squa ...
in
Yogyakarta Yogyakarta is the capital city of the Special Region of Yogyakarta in Indonesia, in the south-central part of the island of Java. As the only Indonesian royal city still ruled by Hamengkubuwono, a monarchy, Yogyakarta is regarded as an importan ...
,
Special Region of Yogyakarta The Special Region of Yogyakarta is a province-level special region of Indonesia in southern Java. It is a semi-enclave that is surrounded by on the landward side by Central Java Province to the west, north, and east, but has a long coastline ...
was previously named ''Jalan Trikora'' (Trikora Street) before being renamed ''Jalan Pangurakan''. Other roads in several Indonesian cities, particularly in Papua and West Papua, are also named after the operation as well. Another place named after the operation is Trikora Peak in Papua highlands.


Notes


See also

*
Dutch New Guinea Dutch New Guinea or Netherlands New Guinea (, ) was the western half of the island of New Guinea that was a part of the Dutch East Indies until 1949, later an overseas territory of the Kingdom of the Netherlands from 1949 to 1962. It contained ...
*
West New Guinea dispute The West New Guinea dispute (1950–1962), also known as the West Irian dispute, was a diplomatic and political conflict between the Netherlands and Indonesia over the territory of Dutch New Guinea. While the Netherlands had ceded sovereignty o ...


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Trikora, Operation 1961 in Southeast Asia 1961 in the Dutch Empire 1962 in Southeast Asia 1962 in the Dutch Empire Military operations involving Indonesia Military operations involving the Netherlands Dutch New Guinea 1960s in Western New Guinea Sukarno Military operations involving the Soviet Union Indonesia–Soviet Union relations Netherlands–Soviet Union relations Invasions by Indonesia