HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Triclocarban (sometimes abbreviated as TCC) is an
antibacterial An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention ...
chemical once common in, but now phased out of, personal care products like
soap Soap is a salt (chemistry), salt of a fatty acid (sometimes other carboxylic acids) used for cleaning and lubricating products as well as other applications. In a domestic setting, soaps, specifically "toilet soaps", are surfactants usually u ...
s and lotions. It was originally developed for the medical field. Although the mode of action is unknown, TCC can be effective in fighting infections by targeting the growth of bacteria such as ''
Staphylococcus aureus ''Staphylococcus aureus'' is a Gram-positive spherically shaped bacterium, a member of the Bacillota, and is a usual member of the microbiota of the body, frequently found in the upper respiratory tract and on the skin. It is often posi ...
''. Additional research seeks to understand its potential for causing antibacterial resistance and its effects on organismal and environmental health.


Usage

Triclocarban has been used as an
antimicrobial An antimicrobial is an agent that kills microorganisms (microbicide) or stops their growth (bacteriostatic agent). Antimicrobial medicines can be grouped according to the microorganisms they are used to treat. For example, antibiotics are used aga ...
and
antifungal An antifungal medication, also known as an antimycotic medication, is a pharmaceutical fungicide or fungistatic used to treat and prevent mycosis such as athlete's foot, ringworm, candidiasis (thrush), serious systemic infections such as ...
compound since the 1960s. It was commonly found in personal care products as an antimicrobial in soaps, lotions, deodorants, toothpaste, and plastic. about 80% of all antimicrobial bar soap sold in the United States contained triclocarban. In 2011 United States consumers were spending nearly 1 billion dollars annually on products containing triclocarban and triclosan. In December 2013, the
Food and Drug Administration The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or US FDA) is a List of United States federal agencies, federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA is respo ...
(FDA) required all companies to prove within the next year, that triclocarban is not harmful to consumers. Companies like
Johnson & Johnson Johnson & Johnson (J&J) is an American multinational pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and medical technologies corporation headquartered in New Brunswick, New Jersey, and publicly traded on the New York Stock Exchange. Its common stock is a c ...
,
Procter & Gamble The Procter & Gamble Company (P&G) is an American multinational consumer goods corporation headquartered in Cincinnati, Ohio. It was founded in 1837 by William Procter and James Gamble. It specializes in a wide range of personal health/con ...
,
Colgate-Palmolive The Colgate-Palmolive Company, commonly known as Colgate-Palmolive, is an American multinational corporation, multinational consumer products company headquartered on Park Avenue in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. The company specializes in ...
, and Avon began phasing out antibacterial ingredients due to health concerns. By 2016 usage of triclocarban in soaps had declined to 40%, and that September the FDA banned triclocarban, triclosan and 17 other common antibacterial chemicals by September 2017, for their failure to be proven safe, or more effective than plain soap and water.


Chemical structure and properties

Triclocarban, 3-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)urea, is a white powder that is insoluble in water. While triclocarban has two chlorinated phenyl rings, it is structurally similar to carbanilide compounds often found in
pesticides Pesticides are substances that are used to pest control, control pest (organism), pests. They include herbicides, insecticides, nematicides, fungicides, and many others (see table). The most common of these are herbicides, which account for a ...
(such as
diuron DCMU (3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea) is an algicide and herbicide of the aryl urea class that inhibits photosynthesis. It was introduced by Bayer in 1954 under the trade name of Diuron. History In 1952, chemists at E. I. du Pont de Ne ...
) and some drugs. Chlorination of ring structures is often associated with hydrophobicity, persistence in the environment, and bioaccumulation in fatty tissues of living organisms. For this reason, chlorine is also a common component of
persistent organic pollutants Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. They are toxic and adversely affect human health and the environment around the world. Becaus ...
. Triclocarban is incompatible with strong oxidizing reagents and strong bases, reaction with which could result in safety concerns such as explosion, toxicity, gas, and heat.


Synthesis of triclocarban

There are two commercial routes used for the production of triclocarban, using the reaction of
isocyanate In organic chemistry, isocyanate is the functional group with the formula . Organic compounds that contain an isocyanate group are referred to as isocyanates. An organic compound with two isocyanate groups is known as a diisocyanate. Diisocyan ...
s with
nucleophiles In chemistry, a nucleophile is a chemical species that forms bonds by donating an electron pair. All molecules and ions with a free pair of electrons or at least one pi bond can act as nucleophiles. Because nucleophiles donate electrons, they are ...
such as
amines In chemistry, amines (, ) are organic compounds that contain carbon-nitrogen bonds. Amines are formed when one or more hydrogen atoms in ammonia are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. The nitrogen atom in an amine possesses a lone pair of elec ...
to form
urea Urea, also called carbamide (because it is a diamide of carbonic acid), is an organic compound with chemical formula . This amide has two Amine, amino groups (–) joined by a carbonyl functional group (–C(=O)–). It is thus the simplest am ...
s:Christian Six, Frank Richter "Isocyanates, Organic" in ''Ulmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. #4-chlorophenylisocyanate is reacted with 3,4-dichloroaniline # 3,4-dichlorophenylisocyanate is reacted with 4-chloroaniline The purity specification in the draft USP monograph for triclocarban is: not less than 97.0% w/w. The purity of commercial production is greater, 98% w/w.


Mechanism of action


Bacteria

Triclocarban is predominantly active against
gram positive In bacteriology, gram-positive bacteria are bacteria that give a positive result in the Gram stain test, which is traditionally used to quickly classify bacteria into two broad categories according to their type of cell wall. The Gram stain i ...
bacteria (bacteria with a thick
peptidoglycan wall Peptidoglycan or murein is a unique large macromolecule, a polysaccharide, consisting of sugars and amino acids that forms a mesh-like layer (sacculus) that surrounds the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane. The sugar component consists of alternating ...
). The precise mechanism of action of triclocarban is unknown, but it is shown to be bacteriostatic, which prevents bacterial proliferation.


Humans

The specific mechanism of action for triclocarban's health effects on humans, like in bacteria, is unclear. Generally, ''in vitro'', triclocarban enhances the gene expression of other steroid hormones, including androgens, estrogens, and cortisol. It is hypothesized that the compound acts similar to cofactors or coactivators that modulate the activity of
estrogen receptor Estrogen receptors (ERs) are proteins found in cell (biology), cells that function as receptor (biochemistry), receptors for the hormone estrogen (17β-estradiol). There are two main classes of ERs. The first includes the intracellular estrogen ...
s and
androgen receptors The androgen receptor (AR), also known as NR3C4 (nuclear receptor subfamily 3, group C, member 4), is a type of nuclear receptor that is activated by binding any of the androgenic hormones, including testosterone and dihydrotestosterone, in th ...
. Experiments show that triclocarban activates
constitutive androstane receptor The constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) also known as nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group I, member 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''NR1I3'' gene. CAR is a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily and along with pregnane ...
and
estrogen receptor alpha Estrogen receptor alpha (ERα), also known as NR3A1 (nuclear receptor subfamily 3, group A, member 1), is one of two main types of estrogen receptor, a nuclear receptor (mainly found as a chromatin-binding protein) that is activated by the sex ...
both ''in vivo'' and ''in vitro'' and might have the potential to alter normal physiological homeostasis. Activation of these receptors amplifies gene expression and, in doing so, may be the mechanistic base of triclocarban's health impact on humans. However, further investigation is needed to determine whether triclocarban increases the activity of sex steroid hormones by binding to the receptors or by binding to and sensitizing the receptor coactivators.


Antibacterial properties

Triclocarban acts to treat both initial bacterial skin and mucosal infections as well as those infections at risk for
superinfection A superinfection is a second infection superimposed on an earlier one, especially by a different microbial agent of exogenous or endogenous origin, that is resistant to the treatment being used against the first infection. Examples of this in bact ...
. ''In vitro'', triclocarban has been found to be effective against various strains of ''staphylococcus'', ''streptococcus'', and ''enterococcus'' bacteria. It has been shown to be effective as an antibacterial even at very low levels. Triclocarban's
minimum inhibitory concentration In microbiology, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is the lowest concentration of a chemical, usually a drug, which prevents visible ''in vitro'' cell growth, growth of bacteria or Fungus, fungi. MIC testing is performed in both diagnosti ...
has been found to range from 0.5 to 8 mg/L for these various strains. Triclocarban is unquestionably bacteriostatic only for gram-positive bacteria such as ''Staphylococcus aureus'', which suggests that the mechanism of triclocarban's antibacterial activity is through its destabilization of bacterial cell walls.


Resistance

Exposure of organisms like fish, algae, and humans to low levels of triclocarban and other antibacterial chemicals kills weak microbes and allows the stronger, resistant strains to proliferate. As microbes share genes, an increase in resistant strains increases the probability that weak microbes acquire these resistance genes. The consequence is a new colony of drug resistant microbes. When resistant microbes are exposed to antimicrobials, they increase their expression of genes that confer this resistance. The risk of bacterial
antibiotic resistance Antimicrobial resistance (AMR or AR) occurs when microbes evolve mechanisms that protect them from antimicrobials, which are drugs used to treat infections. This resistance affects all classes of microbes, including bacteria (antibiotic resis ...
has been studied by quantitatively monitoring the abundance of the tetQ gene in wastewater microcosms. As tetQ is the most common resistance gene in the environment and encodes for ribosomal protection proteins, the amount that it expresses correlates with the amount of resistance in a microbial population. The addition of triclocarban was shown to increase the expression of this tetQ gene. TetQ gene expression in bacteria was also found to be significantly increased when multiple antimicrobials such as tetracycline, triclosan, and triclocarban were added to an experimental system at the same time. Combining these compounds affects resistance by creating a situation where co-selection (or
natural selection Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in the Heredity, heritable traits characteristic of a population over generation ...
by more than one reagent) for resistance genes occurs. The complex nature of microbial communities and the multitude of antibiotics present in aquatic environments often leads to this sort of dynamic selection event and the multiple resistance patterns seen in naturally occurring bacteria.


Environmental fate

When triclocarban is manufactured, 139 toxic, carcinogenic byproducts, such as 4-chloroaniline and 3,4-dichloroaniline, are released. More of these carcinogens can be released upon chemical, physical and biological attack of triclocarban. The duration of triclocarban chemical in personal product use is relatively short. Upon disposal, the triclocarban is washed down the drain to municipal
wastewater treatment plants Wastewater treatment is a process which removes and eliminates contaminants from wastewater. It thus converts it into an effluent that can be returned to the water cycle. Once back in the water cycle, the effluent creates an acceptable impact on ...
, where about 97-98% of triclocarban is removed from the water. Discharge of effluent from these treatment plants and disposal of sludge on land is the primary route of environmental exposure to triclocarban. Research shows that triclocarban and triclosan have been detected in sewage effluents and
sludge Sludge (possibly , or some dialect related to slush) is a semi-solid slurry that can be produced from a range of industrial processes, from water treatment, wastewater treatment or on-site sanitation systems. It can be produced as a settled sus ...
(
biosolids Biosolids are solid organic matter recovered from a sewage treatment process and used as fertilizer. In the past, it was common for farmers to use animal manure to improve their soil fertility. In the 1920s, the farming community began also to us ...
) due to their incomplete removal during wastewater treatment. Due to their hydrophobic nature, significant amounts of them in wastewater streams partition into sludge, with concentrations at mg/kg levels. The volume of triclocarban reentering the environment in sewage sludge after initial successful capture from wastewater is s 127,000 ± 194,000 kg/yr. This is equivalent to a 4.8 – 48.2% of its total U.S. consumption volume. Crops shown to take up antimicrobials from soil include barley, meadow fescue, carrots and pinto beans. Studies show that substantial quantities of triclocarban (227,000 – 454,000 kg/y) can break through wastewater treatment plants and damage algae on surface waters.


Environmental concerns


Waste water

High concentrations of triclocarban may be found in
wastewater Wastewater (or waste water) is water generated after the use of freshwater, raw water, drinking water or saline water in a variety of deliberate applications or processes. Another definition of wastewater is "Used water from any combination of do ...
. As of 2011 it was among the top ten most commonly detected organic wastewater compounds in terms of frequency and concentration. Triclocarban has been found in increasing concentrations over the past five years and is now more frequently detected than
triclosan Triclosan (sometimes abbreviated as TCS) is an antibacterial and antifungal agent present in some consumer products, including toothpaste, soaps, detergents, toys, and surgical cleaning treatments. It is similar in its uses and mechanism of act ...
.


Wildlife toxicity

Triclocarban has a hazard quotient rating of greater than one, which indicates the potential for adverse effects on organisms due to toxicity. As triclocarban is found in high concentrations in aquatic environments, there are concerns regarding its toxicity to aquatic species. Specifically, triclocarban has been shown to be toxic to amphibians, fish, invertebrates, and aquatic plants, and traces of the compound have been found in Atlantic dolphins. Triclocarban may disrupt hormones critical to the developmental and endocrine processes in exposed animal wildlife. The
neurological Neurology (from , "string, nerve" and the suffix -logia, "study of") is the branch of medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the nervous system, which comprises the brain, the s ...
and
reproductive The reproductive system of an organism, also known as the genital system, is the biological system made up of all the anatomical organs involved in sexual reproduction. Many non-living substances such as fluids, hormones, and pheromones are al ...
systems are particularly affected through contact with this compound. Triclocarban may also affect animal wildlife behavior. For example, triclosan and triclocarban are 100–1,000 times more effective in inhibiting and killing algae, crustaceans, and fish than they are in killing microbes. Triclocarban and triclosan have been observed in multiple organisms, including algae, aquatic blackworms, fish, and dolphins.


Bioaccumulation

Triclocarban
bioaccumulation Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a substance faster than it can be lost or eliminated by catabolism and excretion. T ...
is possible in a number of organisms. Earthworms are known to store this chemical in their bodies and, because of their ecological role as a food source, they have the potential to move triclocarban up the food chain. Microbial species found in soils also bioaccumulate triclocarban. However, the health of these microbes has not been found to be affected by the presence of the chemical. Triclocarban is rapidly accumulated in both algae and adult caged snails. Moreover, triclocarban is more likely than triclosan to bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms. Bioaccumulation occurs in plants treated with water containing triclocarban. However, it is estimated that less than 0.5% of the acceptable daily intake of triclocarban for humans is represented by vegetable consumption. Thus, the concentration of triclocarban in edible portions of plants is a negligible exposure pathway for humans. The potential for triclocarban to bioaccumulate in plants has been exploited in the construction of wetlands meant to help remove triclocarban from wastewater. These
constructed wetlands A constructed wetland is an artificial wetland to treat sewage, greywater, stormwater runoff or industrial wastewater. It may also be designed for land reclamation after mining, or as a mitigation step for natural areas lost to land developme ...
are considered a cost-effective treatment option for the removal of
PPCPs The environmental effect of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is being investigated since at least the 1990s. PPCPs include substances used by individuals for personal health or cosmetic reasons and the products used by agribus ...
, including triclocarban and triclosan, from domestic water effluent. Such compounds tend to concentrate in the roots of wetland plants. Potential ecological risks associated with this method are the decrease of root systems in wetland plants, reduced nutrient uptake, decreased competitive ability, and increased potential for uprooting. Due to these risks, the long term exposure of wetland ecosystems to wastewater containing triclocarban as a major solution to wastewater pollution is still under discussion.


Health concerns


Personal care

One study has investigated how triclocarban remains in the human system after using a bar of soap with traces of triclocarban. Analysis of urine samples from human test subjects shows that, after triclocarban has undergone
glucuronidation Glucuronidation is often involved in drug metabolism of substances such as drugs, pollutants, bilirubin, androgens, estrogens, mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, fatty acid derivatives, retinoids, and bile acids. These linkages involve gly ...
, its oxidative metabolites are less readily excreted than triclocarban itself. This same study performed
topical A topical medication is a medication that is applied to a particular place on or in the body. Most often topical medication means application to body surfaces such as the skin or mucous membranes to treat ailments via a large range of classes ...
treatments of triclocarban on rats and, by analyzing urine and plasma levels, demonstrated that triclocarban does remain in the organism's system.


Endocrine disorders

Triclocarban induces weak responses mediated by
aryl hydrocarbon Aromatic compounds or arenes are organic compounds "with a chemistry typified by benzene" and "cyclically conjugated." The word "aromatic" originates from the past grouping of molecules based on odor, before their general chemical properties were ...
,
estrogen Estrogen (also spelled oestrogen in British English; see spelling differences) is a category of sex hormone responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics. There are three ...
, and
androgen receptors The androgen receptor (AR), also known as NR3C4 (nuclear receptor subfamily 3, group C, member 4), is a type of nuclear receptor that is activated by binding any of the androgenic hormones, including testosterone and dihydrotestosterone, in th ...
''in vitro''. This has yet to be confirmed ''in vivo''. ''In vitro'', the dihydrotestosterone-dependent activation of androgen receptor-responsive gene expression is enhanced by triclocarban by up to 130%. Triclocarban is also a potent inhibitor of the enzyme soluble
epoxide hydrolase Epoxide hydrolases (EHs), also known as epoxide hydratases, are enzymes that metabolize compounds that contain an epoxide residue; they convert this residue to two hydroxyl residues through an epoxide hydrolysis reaction to form diol products. ...
(sEH) ''in vitro''. Additionally, triclocarban amplifies the bioactivity of testosterone and other androgens. This increased activity may have adverse implications for reproductive health. Triclocarban studies on rats exhibited increased size of the specimens' prostate glands. The amplification of sex hormones could promote the growth of breast and prostate cancer. The chemical toxicity of triclocarban with respect to lethality is low ( >5000 mg/kg). Its rate of skin absorption is also low. Repeated low-dose exposure, however, can cause endocrine disruption over time.


Safety

Spillage may increase the risk of human, ecological, and environmental exposure to triclocarban. Immediate removal and restraint of the spill, including triclocarban as dust, is urged. Although triclocarban has few to no direct detrimental effects on health aside from allergic reactions, preventing exposure to triclocarban is recommended. Since triclocarban enters the body through pores, wearing gloves, properly washing hands, and overall proper hygiene reduces the risk of skin exposure and irritation. High concentrations of triclocarban dust may remain in the lungs and inhibit lung and respiratory function. For individuals with prior respiratory conditions, triclocarban exacerbates the severity of respiratory diseases, and proper protection is recommended as a precaution. In case of exposure to triclocarban, the individual is suggested to wash the area with water or to clear the respiratory pathways. In addition to its adverse effects on humans and the environment, solid triclocarban is a fire hazard. It is particularly combustible as dust. Contamination with other oxidizing agents may also result in combustion.


Policy

The
Food and Drug Administration The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or US FDA) is a List of United States federal agencies, federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA is respo ...
began to review the safety of triclocarban and
triclosan Triclosan (sometimes abbreviated as TCS) is an antibacterial and antifungal agent present in some consumer products, including toothpaste, soaps, detergents, toys, and surgical cleaning treatments. It is similar in its uses and mechanism of act ...
in the 1970s, but due to the difficulties of finding antimicrobial alternatives, no final policy, or "drug monograph," was established. Legal action by the
Natural Resources Defense Council The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) is a United States–based 501(c)(3) non-profit international environmental advocacy group, with its headquarters in New York City and offices in Washington, D.C., San Francisco, Los Angeles, Chicag ...
in 2010 forced the FDA to review triclocarban and
triclosan Triclosan (sometimes abbreviated as TCS) is an antibacterial and antifungal agent present in some consumer products, including toothpaste, soaps, detergents, toys, and surgical cleaning treatments. It is similar in its uses and mechanism of act ...
. The
United States Environmental Protection Agency The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an independent agency of the United States government tasked with environmental protection matters. President Richard Nixon proposed the establishment of EPA on July 9, 1970; it began operation on De ...
maintains regulatory control over triclocarban and
triclosan Triclosan (sometimes abbreviated as TCS) is an antibacterial and antifungal agent present in some consumer products, including toothpaste, soaps, detergents, toys, and surgical cleaning treatments. It is similar in its uses and mechanism of act ...
. On September 2, 2016, the Food and Drug Administration announced that triclosan and triclocarban must be removed from all antibacterial soap products by late 2017. Triclocarban is similar in its use and adverse health impacts as
triclosan Triclosan (sometimes abbreviated as TCS) is an antibacterial and antifungal agent present in some consumer products, including toothpaste, soaps, detergents, toys, and surgical cleaning treatments. It is similar in its uses and mechanism of act ...
, and
hexachlorophene Hexachlorophene, also known as Nabac, is an organochlorine compound that was once widely used as a disinfectant. The compound occurs as a white odorless solid, although commercial samples can be off-white and possess a slightly phenolic odor. It ...
which was already prohibited by the FDA.


Current research

Scientists are searching for more sustainable antimicrobials that maintain their effectiveness while being minimally toxic to the environment, humans, and wildlife. This entails low degrees of bioaccumulation and rapid, clean biodegradation in existing wastewater treatment facilities. A lowered potential or no potential for resistance is also preferable. These next generation chemicals should aim to act on a broad spectrum of microbes and pathogens while also being minimally toxic and bioaccumulating in non-target species. Synthesis of these compounds could be improved upon by finding renewable sources for their production that lacks occupational hazards. Research into sustainable chemical production is helping to formulate green pharmaceuticals. These same principles may be applied to the development of improved antimicrobials. Developments in this area would benefit both people and the environment.


See also

*
Antibacterial soap Antibacterial soap is a soap which contains chemical ingredients that purportedly assist in killing bacteria. The majority of antibacterial soaps contain triclosan, though other chemical additives are also common. The effectiveness of products b ...
*
Chlorine Chlorine is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Cl and atomic number 17. The second-lightest of the halogens, it appears between fluorine and bromine in the periodic table and its properties are mostly intermediate between ...
*
Dial (soap) Dial is an American brand of soap, body wash and hand sanitizer manufactured by Henkel North American Consumer Goods, the American subsidiary of Henkel AG & Co. KGaA. It was the world's first antibacterial soap. History Dial emerged as a res ...
*
Prostate cancer Prostate cancer is the neoplasm, uncontrolled growth of cells in the prostate, a gland in the male reproductive system below the bladder. Abnormal growth of the prostate tissue is usually detected through Screening (medicine), screening tests, ...
*
Bioaccumulation Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a substance faster than it can be lost or eliminated by catabolism and excretion. T ...
*
Breast cancer Breast cancer is a cancer that develops from breast tissue. Signs of breast cancer may include a Breast lump, lump in the breast, a change in breast shape, dimpling of the skin, Milk-rejection sign, milk rejection, fluid coming from the nipp ...
*
Triclosan Triclosan (sometimes abbreviated as TCS) is an antibacterial and antifungal agent present in some consumer products, including toothpaste, soaps, detergents, toys, and surgical cleaning treatments. It is similar in its uses and mechanism of act ...
*
Sludge Sludge (possibly , or some dialect related to slush) is a semi-solid slurry that can be produced from a range of industrial processes, from water treatment, wastewater treatment or on-site sanitation systems. It can be produced as a settled sus ...
*
Hand sanitizer Hand sanitizer (also known as hand antiseptic, hand disinfectant, hand rub, or handrub) is a liquid, gel, or foam used to kill viruses, bacteria, and other microorganisms on the hands. It can also come in the form of a cream, spray, or wipe. W ...
*
Deodorant A deodorant is a substance applied to the body to prevent or mask body odor caused by bacterial breakdown of perspiration, for example in the armpits, groin, or feet. A subclass of deodorants, called antiperspirants, prevents sweating itself, t ...
*
Sewage treatment Sewage treatment is a type of wastewater treatment which aims to remove contaminants from sewage to produce an effluent that is suitable to discharge to the surrounding environment or an intended reuse application, thereby preventing water p ...


References

{{Estrogen receptor modulators Antimicrobials Chloroarenes Endocrine disruptors Fungicides Ureas Xenoestrogens 4-Chlorophenyl compounds Drugs with unknown mechanisms of action