Tribune () was the title of various elected officials in
ancient Rome
In modern historiography, ancient Rome is the Roman people, Roman civilisation from the founding of Rome, founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, collapse of the Western Roman Em ...
. The two most important were the
tribunes of the plebs
Tribune of the plebs, tribune of the people or plebeian tribune () was the first office of the Roman state that was open to the plebeians, and was, throughout the history of the Republic, the most important check on the power of the Roman Senate ...
and the
military tribune
A military tribune () was an officer of the Roman army who ranked below the legate and above the centurion. Young men of Equestrian rank often served as military tribunes as a stepping stone to the Senate. The should not be confused with the ...
s. For most of Roman history, a college of ten tribunes of the plebs acted as a check on the authority of the
senate
A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
and the
annual magistrates, holding the power of ''ius intercessionis'' to intervene on behalf of the
plebeians
In ancient Rome, the plebeians or plebs were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not Patrician (ancient Rome), patricians, as determined by the Capite censi, census, or in other words "commoners". Both classes were hereditary.
Et ...
, and veto unfavourable legislation. There were also
military tribune
A military tribune () was an officer of the Roman army who ranked below the legate and above the centurion. Young men of Equestrian rank often served as military tribunes as a stepping stone to the Senate. The should not be confused with the ...
s, who commanded portions of the
Roman army
The Roman army () served ancient Rome and the Roman people, enduring through the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC), the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), and the Roman Empire (27 BC–AD 1453), including the Western Roman Empire (collapsed Fall of the W ...
, subordinate to higher magistrates, such as the
consuls
A consul is an official representative of a government who resides in a foreign country to assist and protect citizens of the consul's country, and to promote and facilitate commercial and diplomatic relations between the two countries.
A consu ...
and
praetor
''Praetor'' ( , ), also ''pretor'', was the title granted by the government of ancient Rome to a man acting in one of two official capacities: (i) the commander of an army, and (ii) as an elected ''magistratus'' (magistrate), assigned to disch ...
s,
promagistrate
In ancient Rome, a promagistrate () was a person who was granted the power via ''prorogation'' to act in place of an ordinary magistrate in the field. This was normally ''pro consule'' or ''pro praetore'', that is, in place of a consul or praeto ...
s, and their
legates
A legate (Latin: , ) was a high-ranking Roman military officer in the Roman army, equivalent to a high-ranking general officer of modern times. Initially used to delegate power, the term became formalised under Augustus as the officer in comman ...
. Various officers within the Roman army were also known as tribunes. The title was also used for several other positions and classes in the course of Roman history.
Tribal tribunes
The word ''tribune'' is derived from the
Roman tribes
A ''tribus'', or tribe, was a division of the Roman people for military, censorial, and voting purposes. When constituted in the '' comitia tributa'', the tribes were the voting units of a legislative assembly of the Roman Republic.''Harper's Di ...
. The three original tribes known as the ''Ramnes'' or ''Ramnenses'', ''Tities'' or ''Titienses,'' and the ''Luceres,'' were each headed by a tribune, who represented each tribe in civil, religious, and military matters.
Subsequently, each of the
Servian tribes was also represented by a tribune.
Tribune of the ''celeres''
Under the Roman Kingdom
The Roman Kingdom, also known as the Roman monarchy and the regal period of ancient Rome, was the earliest period of Ancient Rome, Roman history when the city and its territory were King of Rome, ruled by kings. According to tradition, the Roma ...
, the ''tribunus celerum'', in English ''tribune of the celeres,'' or ''tribune of the knights'', was commander of the king's personal bodyguard, known as the ''celeres
__NoToC__
The ''celeres'' (, ) were the bodyguard of the kings of Rome and the earliest cavalry unit in the Roman military.Livy, i. 15 (). Traditionally established by Romulus, the legendary founder and first King of Rome, the celeres comprised ...
''. This official was second only to the king, and had the authority to pass law, known as ''lex tribunicia'', and to preside over the '' comitia curiata''. Unless the king himself elected to lead the cavalry into battle, this responsibility fell to the tribune of the celeres. In theory he could deprive the king of his imperium
In ancient Rome, ''imperium'' was a form of authority held by a citizen to control a military or governmental entity. It is distinct from '' auctoritas'' and '' potestas'', different and generally inferior types of power in the Roman Republic a ...
, or authority to command, with the agreement of the ''comitia curiata''.
In the reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (died 495 BC) was the legendary seventh and final king of Rome, reigning 25 years until the popular uprising that led to the establishment of the Roman Republic.Livy, ''ab urbe condita libri'', wikisource:From_the_ ...
, the last Roman king, this office was held by Lucius Junius Brutus
Lucius Junius Brutus (died ) was the semi-legendary founder of the Roman Republic and traditionally one of its two first consuls. Depicted as responsible for the expulsion of his uncle, the Roman king Tarquinius Superbus after the suicide of L ...
, the king's nephew, and thus the senior member of the king's household, after the king himself and his sons. It was Brutus who convened the ''comitia'' and asked that they revoke the king's imperium. After the fall of the monarchy, the powers of the tribune of the celeres were divided between the ''Magister Militum
(Latin for "master of soldiers"; : ) was a top-level military command used in the late Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine the Great. The term referred to the senior military officer (equivalent to a war theatre commander, the e ...
'', or Master of the Infantry, also known as the ''Praetor Maximus'' or ''dictator'', and his lieutenant, the ''magister equitum
The , in English Master of the Horse or Master of the Cavalry, was a Roman magistrate appointed as lieutenant to a dictator. His nominal function was to serve as commander of the Roman cavalry in time of war, but just as a dictator could be n ...
'' or "Master of the Horse".
Tribune of the plebs
The ''tribuni plebis'', known in English as ''tribunes of the plebs, tribunes of the people,'' or ''plebeian tribunes,'' were instituted in 494 BC, after the first secession of the plebs, to protect the interests of the plebeians against the actions of the senate and the annual magistrates, who were uniformly patrician. The ancient sources indicate the tribunes may have originally been two or five in number. If the former, the college of tribunes was expanded to five in 470 BC. Either way, the college was increased to ten in 457 BC, and remained at this number throughout Roman history. They were assisted by two '' aediles plebis'', or plebeian aediles. Only plebeians were eligible for these offices, although at least two exceptions existed.
The tribunes of the plebs had the power to convene the '' concilium plebis'', or plebeian assembly, and propose legislation before it. Only one of the tribunes could preside over this assembly, which had the power to pass laws affecting only the plebeians, known as ''plebiscita'', or plebiscites. After 287 BC, the decrees of the ''concilium plebis'' had the effect of law over all Roman citizens. By the 3rd century BC, the tribunes could also convene and propose legislation before the senate.
Although sometimes referred to as "plebeian magistrates," technically the tribunes of the plebs were not magistrates, having been elected by the plebeians alone, and not the whole Roman people. However, they were sacrosanct
Sacrosanctity () or inviolability is the declaration of physical inviolability of a place (particularly temples and city walls), a sacred object, or a person. Under Roman law, this was established through sacred law (), which had religious connot ...
, and the whole body of the plebeians were pledged to protect the tribunes against any assault or interference with their persons during their terms of office. Anyone who violated the sacrosanctity of the tribunes might be killed without penalty.
This was also the source of the tribunes' power, known as ''ius intercessionis,'' or ''intercessio,'' by which any tribune could intercede on behalf of a Roman citizen to prohibit the act of a magistrate or other official. Citizens could appeal the decisions of the magistrates to the tribunes, who would then be obliged to determine the legality of the action before a magistrate could proceed. This power also allowed the tribunes to forbid, or ''veto'' any act of the senate or another assembly. Only a dictator
A dictator is a political leader who possesses absolute Power (social and political), power. A dictatorship is a state ruled by one dictator or by a polity. The word originated as the title of a Roman dictator elected by the Roman Senate to r ...
was exempt from these powers.
The ''tribunicia potestas'', or tribunician power, was limited because it was derived from the people's oath to defend the tribunes. This limited most of the tribunes' actions to the boundaries of the city itself, as well as a radius of one mile around. They had no power to affect the actions of provincial governors.
The powers of the tribunes were severely curtailed during the constitutional reforms of the dictator Sulla
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (, ; 138–78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman people, Roman general and statesman of the late Roman Republic. A great commander and ruthless politician, Sulla used violence to advance his career and his co ...
in 81 BC. Although many of these powers were restored in further reforms of 75 BC and 70 BC, the prestige and authority of the tribunes had been irreparably damaged. In 48 BC, the senate granted tribunician powers (''tribunicia potestas'', powers equivalent to those of a tribune without actually being one) to the dictator Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in Caesar's civil wa ...
. Caesar used them to prevent the other tribunes interfering with his actions. In 23 BC, the senate granted the same power to Augustus
Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...
, the first Roman emperor, and from that point onwards it was regularly granted to each emperor as part of their formal titles. Under the Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...
, the tribunes continued to be elected, but had lost their independence and most of their practical power. The office became merely a step in the political careers of plebeians who aspired toward a seat in the senate.
Military tribunes
The ''tribuni militum,'' known in English as ''military tribunes'' or literally, ''tribunes of the soldiers'', were elected each year along with the annual magistrates. Their number varied throughout Roman history, but eventually reached twenty-four. These were usually young men in their late twenties, who aspired to a senatorial career. Each tribune would be assigned to command a portion of the Roman army, subordinate to the magistrates and promagistrates appointed by the senate, and their legates.
Within each of the legions, various middle-ranking officers were also styled ''tribune''. These officers included:
* ''Tribunus laticlavius
In the Roman army of the late Republic and the Principate, the ("broad-striped tribune") was one of the six military tribunes in a legion. Usually, it consisted of young men around age 20 who belonged to a wealthy family or were friends with th ...
'', a senatorial officer, second in command of a legion; identified by a broad stripe, or ''laticlavus.''
* ''Tribunus angusticlavius
A ''tribunus angusticlavius'' ("narrow-striped military tribune, tribune"; : ''tribuni angusticlavii'') was a senior military officer in the Roman legions during the late Roman Republic and the Principate.
The ''tribunus angusticlavius'' was a j ...
'', an officer chosen from among the equites, five to each legion; identified by a narrow stripe, or ''angusticlavus''.
* ''Tribunus rufulus'', an officer chosen by the commander.
* ''Tribunus vacans'', an unassigned officer in the Late Roman army; a member of the general's staff.
* ''Tribunus cohortis'', an officer commanding a cohort
Cohort or cohortes may refer to:
Cohort Sociological
* Cohort (military unit), the basic tactical unit of a Roman legion
* Cohort (educational group), a group of students working together through the same academic curriculum
Scientific
* Cohort ...
, part of a legion usually consisting of six centuries.
* ''Tribunus cohortis urbanae'', commander of one of the urban cohorts, a sort of military police unit stationed at Rome.
* ''Tribunus sexmestris'', a tribune serving a tour of duty of only six months; there is no evidence to identify this officer as a cavalry commander, as sometimes stated in modern literature.
In the late Roman army, a ''tribunus'' was a senior officer, sometimes called a ''comes
''Comes'' (plural ''comites''), translated as count, was a Roman title, generally linked to a comitatus or comital office.
The word ''comes'' originally meant "companion" or "follower", deriving from "''com-''" ("with") and "''ire''" ("go"). Th ...
'', who commanded a cavalry vexillatio
A ''vexillatio'' (: ''vexillationes'') was a detachment of a Roman legion formed as a temporary task force created by the Roman army of the Principate. It was named from the standard carried by legionary detachments, the ''vexillum'' (: ''vexill ...
. As ''tribounos'', the title survived in the East Roman army
The Eastern Roman army refers to the army of the eastern section of the Roman Empire, from the empire's definitive split in 395 AD to the army's reorganization by themes after the permanent loss of Syria, Palestine and Egypt to the Arabs in the 7 ...
until the early 7th century.
From the use of ''tribunus'' to describe various military officers is derived the word ''tribunal'', originally referring to a raised platform used to address the soldiers or administer justice.
Military tribunes are featured in notable works of historical fiction, including '' Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ'', by Lew Wallace
Lewis Wallace (April 10, 1827February 15, 1905) was an American lawyer, Union general in the American Civil War, governor of New Mexico Territory, politician, diplomat, artist, and author from Indiana. Among his novels and biographies, Walla ...
, and '' The Robe'' by Lloyd C. Douglas. Both novels involve characters affected by the life and death of Jesus
Jesus (AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Chris ...
, and were turned into epic film
Epic films have large scale, sweeping scope, and spectacle. The term is slightly ambiguous, sometimes designating a film genre and at other times simply big-budget films. Like epics in the classical literary sense, it is often focused on a her ...
s during the 1950s. Messala, the primary antagonist in ''Ben-Hur Ben-Hur or Ben Hur may refer to:
Fiction
*'' Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ'', an 1880 novel by American general and author Lew Wallace
** ''Ben-Hur'' (play), a play that debuted on Broadway in 1899
** ''Ben Hur'' (1907 film), a one-reel silent ...
'', was played by Stephen Boyd, while Marcellus Gallio, the protagonist of '' The Robe'', was played by a young Richard Burton
Richard Burton (; born Richard Walter Jenkins Jr.; 10 November 1925 – 5 August 1984) was a Welsh actor.
Noted for his mellifluous baritone voice, Burton established himself as a formidable Shakespearean actor in the 1950s and gave a memor ...
.
Consular tribunes
In 445 BC, the tribunes of the plebs succeeded in passing the ''lex Canuleia
The (‘Gaius Canuleius, Canuleian law’), or , was a law of the Roman Republic, passed in the year 445 BC, restoring the right of (marriage) between patrician (ancient Rome), patricians and plebs, plebeians.
Canuleius' first rogation
Five year ...
'', repealing the law forbidding the intermarriage of patricians and plebeians, and providing that one of the consuls might be a plebeian. Rather than permit the consular dignity to pass into the hands of a plebeian, the senate proposed a compromise whereby three military tribunes, who might be either patrician or plebeian, should be elected in place of the consuls. The first ''tribuni militum consulare potestate'', or ''military tribunes with consular power'', were elected for the year 444. Although plebeians were eligible for this office, each of the first "consular tribunes" was a patrician.[
Military tribunes were elected in place of the consuls in half the years from 444 to 401 BC, and in each instance, all of the tribunes were patricians; nor did any plebeian succeed in obtaining the consulship. The number of tribunes increased to four beginning in 426, and six beginning in 405. At last, the plebeians elected four of their number military tribunes for the year 400; others were elected in 399, 396, 383, and 379. But apart from these years, no plebeian obtained the highest offices of the Roman State.
The patricians' monopoly on power was finally broken by Gaius Licinius Calvus Stolo and ]Lucius Sextius Lateranus
Lucius Sextius Sextinus Lateranus was a Roman tribune of the plebs and is noted for having been one of two men (the other being Gaius Licinius Stolo) who passed the Lex Licinia Sextia, Leges Liciniae Sextiae of 368 BC and 367 BC. Originally, these ...
, tribunes of the people, who in 376 BC brought forward legislation demanding not merely that one of the consuls ''might'' be a plebeian, but that henceforth one ''must'' be chosen from their order. When the senate refused their demand, the tribunes prevented the election of annual magistrates for five years, before relenting and permitting the election of consular tribunes from 370 to 367. In the end, and with the encouragement of the dictator Marcus Furius Camillus
Marcus Furius Camillus (; possibly – ) was a Roman statesman and politician during the early Roman republic who is most famous for his capture of Veii and defence of Rome from Gallic sack after the Battle of the Allia. Modern scholars are dub ...
, the senate conceded the battle, and passed the Licinian Rogations. Sextius was elected the first plebeian consul, followed by Licinius two years later; and with this settlement, the consular tribunes were abolished.[
]
Tribunes of the treasury
The exact nature of the ''Tribuni Aerarii'', or ''Tribunes of the Treasury'' is shrouded in mystery. Originally they seem to have been tax collectors, but this power was slowly lost to other officials. By the end of the Republic, this style belonged to a class of persons slightly below the equites in wealth. When the makeup of Roman juries was reformed in 70 BC, it was stipulated that one-third of the members of each jury should belong to this class.
Later uses of the title
Post-Roman Britain
In his '' Vita Germani'', a hagiography
A hagiography (; ) is a biography of a saint or an ecclesiastical leader, as well as, by extension, an adulatory and idealized biography of a preacher, priest, founder, saint, monk, nun or icon in any of the world's religions. Early Christian ...
of St. Germanus of Auxerre, Constantius of Lyon writes that during his visit to Britain in AD 429, Germanus miraculously healed the blind daughter of "a man with tribunician power" (''vir tribunicae potestatis''). Being that the Roman Empire had withdrawn from Britain in AD 410, the use of this term may imply a continuation of some form of local Roman political system. There exists the possibility that this tribune had commanded a unit of the Roman army which had disbanded after the break with Rome, and was now occupying a more locally-granted appointment to help manage his city's defences.
Republic of Venice
In the early history of the Republic of Venice
The Republic of Venice, officially the Most Serene Republic of Venice and traditionally known as La Serenissima, was a sovereign state and Maritime republics, maritime republic with its capital in Venice. Founded, according to tradition, in 697 ...
, during the tenure of the sixth Doge
Doge, DoGE or DOGE may refer to:
Internet culture
* Doge (meme), an Internet meme primarily associated with the Shiba Inu dog breed
** Dogecoin, a cryptocurrency named after the meme
** Kabosu (dog), the dog portrayed in the original Doge image ...
Domenico Monegario, Venice instituted a dual Tribunal modeled on the above Roman institution - two new Tribunes being elected each year, with the intention to oversee the Doge and prevent abuse of power (though this aim was not always successfully achieved).
French revolutionary ''tribunat''
The "Tribunat", the French word for tribunate, derived from the Latin term ''tribunatus'', meaning the office or term of a Roman ''tribunus'' (see above), was a collective organ of the young revolutionary French Republic composed of members styled ''tribun'' (the French for tribune), which, despite the apparent reference to one of ancient Rome's prestigious magistratures, never held any real political power as an assembly, its individual members no role at all.
It was instituted by Napoleon I Bonaparte's Constitution of the Year VIII
The Constitution of the Year VIII ( or ) was a national constitution of France, adopted on 24 December 1799 (during Year VIII of the French Republican calendar), which established the form of government known as the Consulate. The coup of 18 ...
"in order to moderate the other powers" by discussing every legislative project, sending its ''orateurs'' ("orators", i.e. spokesmen) to defend or attack them in the Corps législatif
The was a part of the French legislature during the French Revolution and beyond. It is also the generic French term used to refer to any legislative body.
History
Under Napoleon's Consulate, the Constitution of the Year VIII (1799) set up ...
, and asking the Senate to overturn "the lists of eligibles, the acts of the Legislative Body and those of the government" on account of unconstitutionality. Its 100 members were designated by the Senate from the list of citizens from 25 years up, and annually one fifth was renewed for a five-year term.
When it opposed the first parts of Bonaparte's proposed penal code, he made the Senate nominate 20 new members at once to replace the 20 first opponents to his politic; they accepted the historically important reform of penal law. As the Tribunate opposed new despotic projects, he got the Senate in year X to allow itself to dissolve the Tribunate. In XIII it was further downsized to 50 members. On August 16, 1807, it was abolished and never revived.
See also
*Constitution of the Roman Republic
The constitution of the Roman Republic was a set of Uncodified constitution, uncodified norms and customs which, together with various Roman law, written laws, guided the procedural governance of the Roman Republic. The constitution emerged from ...
*List of Roman tribunes
A list is a set of discrete items of information collected and set forth in some format for utility, entertainment, or other purposes. A list may be memorialized in any number of ways, including existing only in the mind of the list-maker, but ...
References
Notes
Bibliography
*
* for information on Tribunes of the Treasury
External links
Livius.org: Tribune
*
{{Ancient Rome topics
Ancient Roman titles